The Effects of Compressibility on Inhomogeneous Deformations for a Class of Almost Incompressible Isotropic Nonlinearly Elastic Materials

Experimental data for simple tension suggest that there is a power–law kinematic relationship between the stretches for large classes of slightly compressible (or almost incompressible) non-linearly elastic materials that are homogeneous and isotropic. Here we confine attention to a particular constitutive model for such materials that is of generalized Varga type. The corresponding incompressible model has been shown to be particularly tractable analytically. We examine the response of the slightly compressible material to some nonhomogeneous deformations and compare the results with those for the corresponding incompressible model. Thus the effects of slight compressibility for some basic nonhomogeneous deformations are explicitly assessed. The results are fundamental to the analytical modeling of almost incompressible hyperelastic materials and are of importance in the context of finite element methods where slight compressibility is usually introduced to avoid element locking due to the incompressibility constraint. It is also shown that even for slightly compressible materials, the volume change can be significant in certain situations.      

超弹性材料本构关系的最新研究进展

超弹性材料是工程实际中的常用材料, 具有在外力作用下经历非常大变形、在外力撤去后完全恢复至初始状态的特征. 超弹性材料是典型的非线性弹性材料, 其性能可通过材料的应变能函数予以表征. 近几十年来, 围绕应变能函数形式的构造, 已提出许多超弹性材料本构关系研究的数学模型和物理模型, 但适用于多种变形模式和全变形范围的完全本构关系仍是该领域期待解决的重要问题. 本文从3个不同角度, 对超弹性材料本构关系研究的最新进展进行了总结和分析: (1)不同体积变化模式, 包含不可压与可压两种; (2)多变形模式, 包含单轴拉伸、剪切、等双轴以及复合拉剪等多个种类; (3)全范围变形程度, 包含小变形、中等变形到较大变形范围. 超弹性材料本构关系研究的最新进展表明, 为了全面描述具体材料的实验数据并在实际问题中应用超弹性材料, 需要建立适合于多种变形模式和全变形范围的可压超弹性材料的完全本构关系. 对实际超弹性材料完全本构关系的建立及可压超弹性材料应变能函数的构造, 笔者还提出了相应的实施步骤和研究方法.      

STATE OF THE ART OF CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS OF HYPERELASTIC MATERIALS 1)

超弹性材料是工程实际中的常用材料, 具有在外力作用下经历非常大变形、在外力撤去后完全恢复至初始状态的特征. 超弹性材料是典型的非线性弹性材料, 其性能可通过材料的应变能函数予以表征. 近几十年来, 围绕应变能函数形式的构造, 已提出许多超弹性材料本构关系研究的数学模型和物理模型, 但适用于多种变形模式和全变形范围的完全本构关系仍是该领域期待解决的重要问题. 本文从3个不同角度, 对超弹性材料本构关系研究的最新进展进行了总结和分析: (1)不同体积变化模式, 包含不可压与可压两种; (2)多变形模式, 包含单轴拉伸、剪切、等双轴以及复合拉剪等多个种类; (3)全范围变形程度, 包含小变形、中等变形到较大变形范围. 超弹性材料本构关系研究的最新进展表明, 为了全面描述具体材料的实验数据并在实际问题中应用超弹性材料, 需要建立适合于多种变形模式和全变形范围的可压超弹性材料的完全本构关系. 对实际超弹性材料完全本构关系的建立及可压超弹性材料应变能函数的构造, 笔者还提出了相应的实施步骤和研究方法.     

Constitutive Models for Compressible Nonlinearly Elastic Materials with Limiting Chain Extensibility

Constitutive models are proposed for compressible isotropic hyperelastic materials that reflect limiting chain extensibility. These are generalizations of the model proposed by Gent for incompressible materials. The goal is to understand the effects of limiting chain extensibility when the compressibility of polymeric materials is taken into account. The basic homogeneous deformation of simple tension is considered and simple closed-form relations for the deformation characteristics are obtained for slightly compressible materials. An explicit first-order approximation is obtained for the lateral contraction and for the Poisson function in terms of the axial extension which is shown to be valid for each of two specific compressible versions of the Gent model. One of the main results obtained is that the effect of limiting chain extensibility is to stiffen the material relative to the neo-Hookean compressible case. Mathematics Subject Classifications (2000) 74B20, 74G55.     

显式方法精确模拟形状记忆聚合物热力学行为

通过构建一个热耦合的多轴可压缩应变能函数,得到应力-应变、应力-温度和应变-温度之间的函数关系,建立形状记忆聚合物的本构方程.本文引入三个基于对数应变的不变量使得模型（i）可以模拟可压缩情况;（ii）适用于单轴拉伸和等双轴拉伸至少两个基准实验;（iii）多轴有效.通过显式方法（i）给出自由能和熵的具体表达,证明模型热力学定律;（ii）给出应变-应力,温度-应力以及,温度-应变的形函数具体表达.多轴模型在特定的情况下可以自动退化到各自的单轴情况. 通过调节形函数的参数,最终得到的模型结果和实验结果能够精确匹配.新方法建立的本构模型得到的结果能更加准确地指导形状记忆聚合物的工程设计。     

显式方法精确模拟形状记忆聚合物热力学行为

通过构建一个热耦合的多轴可压缩应变能函数,得到应力-应变、应力-温度和应变-温度之间的函数关系,建立形状记忆聚合物的本构方程.本文引入三个基于对数应变的不变量使得模型（i）可以模拟可压缩情况;（ii）适用于单轴拉伸和等双轴拉伸至少两个基准实验;（iii）多轴有效.通过显式方法（i）给出自由能和熵的具体表达,证明模型热力学定律;（ii）给出应变-应力,温度-应力以及,温度-应变的形函数具体表达.多轴模型在特定的情况下可以自动退化到各自的单轴情况. 通过调节形函数的参数,最终得到的模型结果和实验结果能够精确匹配.新方法建立的本构模型得到的结果能更加准确地指导形状记忆聚合物的工程设计。     

Strain Energy Functions for a Poisson Power Law Function in Simple Tension of Compressible Hyperelastic Materials

The most general strain energy function that yields a power law relationship between the principal stretches in the simple tension of nonlinear, elastic, homogeneous, compressible, isotropic materials is obtained. The approach taken generalises that used by Blatz and Ko. The strain energy function obtained depends on the choice of two stretch invariants. The forms of the strain energy function for a number of such choices are obtained. Finally, some consequences of the choice of strain energy function on the stress–strain relationship for uniaxial tension are investigated. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The elastostatic plane strain mode I crack tip stress and displacement fields in a generalized linear neo-Hookean elastomer

A general asymptotic plane strain crack tip stress field is constructed for linear versions of neo-Hookean materials, which spans a wide variety of special cases including incompressible Mooney elastomers, the compressible Blatz–Ko elastomer, several cases of the Ogden constitutive law and a new result for a compressible linear neo-Hookean material. The nominal stress field has dominant terms that have a square root singularity with respect to the distance of material points from the crack tip in the undeformed reference configuration. At second order, there is a uniform tension parallel to the crack. The associated displacement field in plane strain at leading order has dependence proportional to the square root of the same coordinate. The relationship between the amplitude of the crack tip singularity (a stress intensity factor) and the plane strain energy release rate is outlined for the general linear material, with simplified relationships presented for notable special cases.     

Finite strain––isotropic hyperelasticity

This paper presents a strain energy density for isotropic hyperelastic materials. The strain energy density is decomposed into a compressible and incompressible component. The incompressible component is the same as the generalized Mooney expression while the compressible component is shown to be a function of the volume invariant J only. The strain energy density proposed is used to investigate problems involving incompressible isotropic materials such as rubber under homogeneous strain, compressible isotropic materials under high hydrostatic pressure and volume change under uniaxial tension. Comparison with experimental data is good. The formulation is also used to derive a strain energy density expression for compressible isotropic neo-Hookean materials. The constitutive relationship for the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor and its physical counterpart, involves the contravariant Almansi strain tensor. The stress stretch relationship comprises of a component associated with volume constrained distortion and a hydrostatic pressure which results in volumetric dilation. An important property of this constitutive relationship is that the hydrostatic pressure component of the stress vector which is associated with volumetric dilation will have no shear component on any surface in any configuration. This same property is not true for a neo-Hookean Green’s strain–second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor formulation.     

Nonproportional loading effects on elastic-plastic behavior based on stress resultants for thin plates of strain hardening materials

A stress resultant constitutive law in rate form is constructed for power-law hardening materials. The change of plate thickness is considered in the constitutive law. The elastic-plastic behavior of a plate element based on the stress resultant constitutive law under uniaxial combined tension and bending is determined under a limited number of nonproportional and unloading paths. The results based on the stress resultant constitutive law and the through-the-thickness integration method are compared within the context of both the small-strain and finite deformation approaches. The results indicate that the selection of the normalized equivalent stress resultant and the corresponding work-conjugate normalized equivalent generalized strain is appropriate for describing the hardening behavior in the stress resultant space. However, the hardening rule in a power law form must be modified for low hardening materials at large plastic deformation when finite deformation effects are considered.     

On axisymmetric flow of Sisko fluid over a radially stretching sheet

This study presents an analysis of the axisymmetric flow of a non-Newtonian fluid over a radially stretching sheet. The momentum equations for two-dimensional flow are first modeled for Sisko fluid constitutive model, which is a combination of power-law and Newtonian fluids. The general momentum equations are then simplified by invoking the boundary layer analysis. Then a non-linear ordinary differential equation governing the axisymmetric boundary layer flow of Sisko fluid over a radially stretching sheet is obtained by introducing new suitable similarity transformations. The resulting non-linear ordinary differential equation is solved analytically via the homotopy analysis method (HAM). Closed form exact solution is then also obtained for the cases n=0 and 1. Analytical results are presented for the velocity profiles for some values of governing parameters such as power-law index, material parameter and stretching parameter. In addition, the local skin friction coefficient for several sets of the values of physical parameter is tabulated and analyzed. It is shown that the results presented in this study for the axisymmetric flow over a radially non-linear stretching sheet of Sisko fluid are quite general so that the corresponding results for the Newtonian fluid and the power-law fluid can be obtained as two limiting cases.     

Homogenization-based constitutive models for porous elastomers and implications for macroscopic instabilities: I—Analysis

The purpose of this paper is to provide homogenization-based constitutive models for the overall, finite-deformation response of isotropic porous rubbers with random microstructures. The proposed model is generated by means of the “second-order” homogenization method, which makes use of suitably designed variational principles utilizing the idea of a “linear comparison composite.” The constitutive model takes into account the evolution of the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of the underlying pores in the material, resulting from the finite changes in geometry that are induced by the applied loading. This point is key, as the evolution of the microstructure provides geometric softening/stiffening mechanisms that can have a very significant effect on the overall behavior and stability of porous rubbers. In this work, explicit results are generated for porous elastomers with isotropic, (in)compressible, strongly elliptic matrix phases. In spite of the strong ellipticity of the matrix phases, the derived constitutive model may lose strong ellipticity, indicating the possible development of shear/compaction band-type instabilities. The general model developed in this paper will be applied in Part II of this work to a special, but representative, class of isotropic porous elastomers with the objective of exploring the complex interplay between geometric and constitutive softening/stiffening in these materials.     

Elastic instabilities for strain-stiffening rubber-like spherical and cylindrical thin shells under inflation

This paper is concerned with investigation of the effects of strain-stiffening on the classical limit point instability that is well-known to occur in the inflation of internally pressurized rubber-like spherical thin shells (balloons) and circular cylindrical thin tubes composed of incompressible isotropic non-linearly elastic materials. For a variety of specific strain-energy densities that give rise to strain-stiffening in the stress-stretch response, the inflation pressure versus stretch relations are given explicitly and the non-monotonic character of the inflation curves is examined. While such results are known for constitutive models that exhibit a gradual stiffening (e.g. exponential and power-law models), our primary focus is on materials that undergo severe strain-stiffening in the stress-stretch response. In particular, we consider two phenomenological constitutive models that reflect limiting chain extensibility at the molecular level. It is shown that for materials with sufficiently low extensibility no limit point instability occurs and so stable inflation is then predicted for such materials. Potential applications of the results to the biomechanics of soft tissues are indicated.     

Effective constitutive behavior of nonlinear solids containing penny-shaped cracks

This article studies the effective constitutive relations of brittle and ductile solids containing either aligned or randomly oriented penny-shaped cracks. The matrix material considered is linear before yielding and behaves with a pure power-law after yielding. An explicit yield function is obtained for the cracked body under general external loading conditions, and the effective stress potential is given in a simple optimization procedure. The results show that the presence of microcracks inside solids significantly lowers the strength of materials.     

Mechanics of the squeeze flow of planar fibre suspensions

This paper discusses the axisymmetric squeeze flow of concentrated transversely isotropic fibre suspensions in a power-law matrix and relates to the processing of composite materials such as sheet moulding compounds (SMCs) and glass mat thermoplastics (GMTs). A solution to the squeeze flow problem for a transversely isotropic power-law fluid is presented first, followed by a more detailed micromechanical analysis. In the first part of the paper a variational approach is applied to the interpretation of squeeze flow behaviour. This gives a simple expression for the total pressure, which enables the contributions due to extension and shear to be separated. Applying the procedure to GMT data suggests that the dissipation is predominantly extensional, except at very low plate separations. In the second part, a non-local constitutive equation is derived based on a simple drag law for hydrodynamic interactions. This is then used to model the pressure distribution when the effective length of the fibres is comparable to or determined by the dimensions of the squeeze flow plates. The model is shown to describe the observed squeeze flow stresses in both long and short fibre systems and to relate behaviour to the underlying resin flow properties.     

一种新的橡胶材料弹性本构模型

橡胶类材料本构关系对于科学研究和工程应用具有重要意义,但已有的橡胶模型的拟合能力和可靠性需要进一步提高.为解决此问题,本文提出了一种新的橡胶材料的各向同性、不可压缩柯西弹性模型.研究了橡胶材料本构关系的模型形式,基于平面应力变形状态,提出了一种以较大的两个伸长率为自变量、适用于一般变形状态的橡胶材料弹性本构模型形式;研究了橡胶材料在侧面受约束条件下的变形规律,分析了橡胶材料本构关系需要满足的约束条件;在此基础上,结合一个可以通过实验确定的描述平面拉伸变形状态下的橡胶材料力学特性函数,提出一种将该函数拓展为平面应力状态一般模型的方法,并给出了一个具体的函数形式,形成了一个新的不可压缩、各向同性的橡胶材料弹性本构模型.使用5组包含3种类型实验的数据和一组较全面的双轴测试数据对该模型进行了参数拟合,结果表明:该模型具有很好的拟合精度和更高的可靠性,仅用一种类型实验数据,如单轴拉伸或者平面拉伸等,也能获得较好的拟合结果.      

Duplex model for homogenized elastic-viscoplastic behavior of plate-fin structures at high temperatures

In this study, a duplex model is developed as a constitutive model for the homogenized elastic-viscoplastic behavior of a class of plate-fin structures operating at high temperatures. This model consists of plate and fin layers, which are individually ruled by different macro-constitutive models. An anisotropic, compressible power-law equation that was derived in a recent study by the present authors is used to describe the homogenized viscoplastic behavior of the fin layer. On the other hand, an isotropic, incompressible power-law equation is used as the macro-constitutive equation of the plate layer. The duplex model developed is applied to an ultra-fine plate-fin structure made of Hastelloy X. It is shown that the duplex model is more successful under multiaxial loading than the corresponding simplex model in which plates and fins are non-separately homogenized.     

Homogenization-based constitutive models for porous elastomers and implications for macroscopic instabilities: II—Results

In Part I of this paper, we developed a homogenization-based constitutive model for the effective behavior of isotropic porous elastomers subjected to finite deformations. In this part, we make use of the proposed model to predict the overall response of porous elastomers with (compressible and incompressible) Gent matrix phases under a wide variety of loading conditions and initial values of porosity. The results indicate that the evolution of the underlying microstructure—which results from the finite changes in geometry that are induced by the applied loading—has a significant effect on the overall behavior of porous elastomers. Further, the model is in very good agreement with the exact and numerical results available from the literature for special loading conditions and generally improves on existing models for more general conditions. More specifically, we find that, in spite of the fact that Gent elastomers are strongly elliptic materials, the constitutive models for the porous elastomers are found to lose strong ellipticity at sufficiently large compressive deformations, corresponding to the possible onset of “macroscopic” (shear band-type) instabilities. This capability of the proposed model appears to be unique among theoretical models to date and is in agreement with numerical simulations and physical experience. The resulting elliptic and non-elliptic domains, which serve to define the macroscopic “failure surfaces” of these materials, are presented and discussed in both strain and stress space.     

On stress-based piecewise elasticity for limited strain extensibility materials

A one-dimensional stress-based elasticity model with limited strain extensibility is developed in this paper, based on thermodynamics arguments. Such nonlinear elastic models can be used to model certain rubber-like and biological materials with limiting chain extensibility. The derived constitutive function is a non-smooth piecewise expression, which can be regularized for numerical or physical considerations. This non-smooth constitutive expression is derived from a Gibbs potential. A three-dimensional extension of this stress-based model is also proposed in the paper. Some simple structural examples are investigated for a bar composed of this non-smooth elastic body. A homogeneous bar composed of this new class of nonlinear elastic material that is loaded is studied for different tension states, namely for concentrated or distributed axial loading. It is shown that the displacement limit extensibility can be observed at the structural scale, with finite or infinite axial load parameters.