Dynamic Equibiaxial Flexural Strength of Borosilicate Glass at High Temperatures

A novel high temperature ring-on-ring Kolsky bar technique was employed to investigate the dynamic equibiaxial flexural strength of borosilicate glass at temperatures ranging from room temperature up to 750°C. This technique provided non-contact heating of the glass specimen and prevented thermal shocks in the specimen. Experimental results at the loading rate of 22.5 MN/s showed significant temperature dependence on the flexural strength. To explore the mechanisms of this temperature effect, controlled surface cracks were introduced on the tensile surface of the glass specimens using a Vickers indentation technique. These surface cracks were then heat treated under the same thermal histories as those tested in the high temperature dynamic experiments. The evolution of crack morphologies at 200°C, 550°C and 650°C were examined. The results indicate that residual stress relaxation may play an important role in the strengthening below 200°C, while crack healing and blunting may account for the strengthening above 500°C.     

A new technique for heating specimens in split-Hopkinson-bar experiments using induction-coil heaters

A new technique to heat metallic specimens, in split-Hopkinson-bar experiments, is presented. The heating is achieved with induction coils surrounding the specimen. The main advantages of this technique are (1) a relatively fast heating rate, (2) localization of the heated volume, and (3) heating achieved without touching the specimen. Experimental results for several metals, in terms of high strain-rate stress-strain curves at elevated temperatures, are presented and discussed.     

Ground thermal response to heat conduction in a power transmission tower foundation

An analytical formulation is developed to predict transient heat conduction in a semi-infinite medium with a vertical finite line heat source, which represents a buried tower of a power transmission line foundation. Unlike past studies with a constant line heat source, the current model develops a time-dependent variable heating strength, as well as a time varying surface temperature of the ground. An approximate VHS model (variable heating strength) is developed for sinusoidal variations of the line source strength and surface temperature, in order to simulate seasonal variations of ground temperatures. The VHS model reduces computational time and exhibits good accuracy, when compared against a full exact solution. The model is applied to heat conduction in a tower foundation, with time-varying ground surface temperatures. Effects of ground thermal conductivity and diffusivity, as well as variations of the line source strength, are investigated in this article.     

A suppression method for thermomechanical stresses during the laser processing of structural elements

A method to reduce thermomechanical stresses during the laser processing of a beam-like specimen along its side surface and a thin disk along its central circular hole is considered. Some analytical temperature expressions are obtained in both these cases. The problems of determining thermal stresses during the heating of specimens with consideration of heat transfer on their surfaces are solved. The solutions obtained with heat transfer and without it are compared. It is shown that the side surface blowing can be used to suppress the fracture of heated specimens.     

Accuracy of thermocouples in radiant-heat testing

Results of an investigation of the accuracy of iron-constantan thermocouples in measuring transient surface temperatures produced by radiant heating on metallic specimens are given. The criterion of thermocouple accuracy was derived from the theory of heat conduction. The thermocouples were tested on metallic specimens of different thicknesses at varying heating rates. Comparison of these results with analytical criteria permitted quantitative determination of thermocouple errors.     

Overview of High-temperature Deformation Measurement Using Digital Image Correlation

Background

Developments in digital image correlation (DIC) in the last decade have made it a practical and effective optical technique for displacement and strain measurement at high temperatures.

Objective

This overview aims to review the research progress, summarize the experience and provide valuable references for the high-temperature deformation measurement using DIC.

Methods

We comprehensively summarize challenges and recent advances in high-temperature DIC techniques.

Results

Fundamental principles of high-temperature DIC and various approaches to generate thermal environment or apply thermal loading are briefly introduced first. Then, the three primary challenges presented in performing high-temperature DIC measurements, i.e., 1). image saturation caused by intensified thermal radiation of heated sample and surrounding heating elements, 2) image contrast reduction due to surface oxidation of the heated sample and speckle pattern debonding, and 3) image distortion due to heat haze between the sample and the heating source, and corresponding countermeasures (i.e., the suppression of thermal radiation, fabrication of high-temperature speckle pattern and mitigation of heat haze) are discussed in detail. Next, typical applications of high-temperature DIC at various spatial scales are briefly described. Finally, remaining unsolved problems and future goals in high-temperature deformation measurements using DIC are also provided. 

Conclusions

We expect this review can guide to build a suitable DIC system for kinematic field measurements at high temperatures and solve the challenging problems that may be encountered during real tests.

     

THERMOMECHANICAL RESPONSE OF SMA FIBER COMPOSITES WITH NON-UNIFORM TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

A micromechanics method based on the High-Order-Theory developed by Aboudi et al. is used to predict the thermomechanical response of composites reinforced by shape memory alloy (SMA) fibers, and the non-uniform thermal distribution in composite arising from the process of heating or cooling is considered. The numerical development based on this model was coded to predict the thermomechanical response of shape memory alloy fiber/elastomer matrix composite subjected to thermal cycle loading. When the composite is heated, two heating ways, thermal gradients and heat source by passing an electric current through the SMA fibers are imposed on the composite respectively. Upon cooling, the first thermal boundary condition and the second thermal boundary condition are subjected to the composite respectively. A series of stress distributions and temperature distributions for different instants are calculated to reveal the interaction between the SMA material and matrix. It is useful to analyze and design the SMA actuator driven by heat source or the surface temperature.     

Laser repetitive pulse heating influence of pulse duty on temperature rise

Laser repetitive pulse heating of the solid surface is considered and influence of duty cycle in the repetitive pulses on the temperature rise and temperature difference at the surface is examined. Laser power distribution with Gaussian profile is assumed and 3D heating model is accommodated in the heating analysis. A numerical method is employed to solve governing equations of heat transfer. It is found that the rate of surface temperature rise is high and temperature difference is large for high duty cycle during the consecutive pulse irradiation. This in turn enhances the thermal cyclic loading of the heated surface.     

A Methodology for Obtaining Material Properties of Polymeric Foam at Elevated Temperatures

A new methodology to characterise the elastic properties of polymeric foam core materials at elevated temperatures is proposed. The focus is to determine reliable values of the tensile and compressive moduli and Poisson’s ratio based on strain data obtained using digital image correlation (DIC). In the paper a detailed coverage of the source of uncertainties in the experimental procedure is provided. The uncertainties include those associated with the load introduction, the measurement and the data processing. The design of the specimens and loading jigs are developed and assessed in terms of the introduction of uniform strain. It is shown that due to the mismatch in stiffness between the jig material and the foam the introduction of a uniform strain through the cross section of the specimens is difficult to obtain. A means for correcting for the non-uniform strain across the specimen cross section is developed. To validate the methodology, tests are firstly conducted at room temperature on Divinycell PVC H100 foam. It is shown that the material is highly anisotropic with a stiffness of 50% less in the plane of the foam sheet compared to the through-thickness direction. It is also shown that because of the compliance of the foam, jig misalignment causes large errors in the measurement, and a means for correcting for this is defined. Tests are then conducted in a temperature controlled chamber at elevated temperatures ranging from 20°C to 90°C. A nonlinear reduction in Young’s modulus is obtained with significant degradation occurring after 70°C. The Poisson’s ratio remains fairly stable at different temperatures. A strong theme in the paper is the accuracy and precision of the DIC data and the factors which introduce scatter in the data, along with the uncertainties that this introduces. Particular attention is paid to the affect of the correlation parameters on the derived strain data.     

一种基于SHPB的冲击膨胀环实验技术

设计了一种基于分离式Hopkinson压杆(SHPB)的冲击膨胀环实验装置,实验装置包括一个液压腔,一侧为驱动活塞,另一侧为圆环试件封闭。对活塞施加轴向冲击,利用液体体积近似不可压缩的特性,通过液压腔截面积的大比例缩小,将较低速度的对活塞冲击转化为圆环试件沿径向的高速膨胀,驱动试件发生拉伸变形直至断(碎)裂。使用这种冲击膨胀装置,获得了LY12铝环在不同撞击速度下碎裂过程的初步结果。实验结果显示,随着撞击速度增大,圆环试件碎裂产生的碎片的尺度减小,试件的表观断裂应变增加。这为研究材料的动态拉伸碎裂问题提供了一种加载方式。     

An approach for analytical solution pertinent to lattice temperature variation due to laser short-pulse heating

Non-equilibrium energy transport in the surface region of the metallic substrate occurs due to a laser irradiation, which in turn results in thermal separation of electron and lattice sub-systems. As the heating period exceeds the thermal relaxation time, both sub-systems become thermally in equilibrium having the identical temperatures. When electron and lattice temperatures become identical the corresponding instant can be called thermal equilibrium time. In the present study, an analytical formulation of lattice site temperature distribution in the domain of thermal equilibrium time is obtained. Temperature differences and temperature distributions in electron and lattice sub-systems are computed for gold. It is found that electron and lattice temperatures become identical for the heating period beyond the thermal equilibrium time. Temperature distribution obtained from the analytical solution and numerical predictions agree well.     

Disk-shaped compact tension test for asphalt concrete fracture

A disk-shaped compact tension (DC(T)) test has been developed as a practical method for obtaining the fracture energy of asphalt concrete. The main purpose of the development of this specimen geometry is the ability to test cylindrical cores obtained from in-place asphalt concrete pavements or gyratory-compacted specimens fabricated during the mixture design process. A suitable specimen geometry was developed using the ASTM E399 standard for compact tension testing of metals as a starting point. After finalizing the specimen geometry, a typical asphalt concrete surface mixture was tested at various temperatures and loading rates to evaluate the proposed DC(T) configuration. The variability of the fracture energy obtained from the DC(T) geometry was found to be comparable with the variability associated with other fracture tests for asphalt concrete. The ability of the test to detect changes in the fracture energy with the various testing conditions (temperature and loading rate) was the benchmark for determining the potential of using the DC(T) geometry. The test has the capability to capture the transition of asphalt concrete from a brittle material at low temperatures to a more ductile material at higher temperatures. Because testing was conducted on ungrooved specimens, special care was taken to quantify deviations of the crack path from the pure mode I crack path. An analysis of variance of test data revealed that the prototype DC(T) can detect statistical differences in fracture energy resulting for tests conducted across a useful range of test temperatures and loading rates. This specific analysis also indicated that fracture energy is not correlated to crack deviation angle. This paper also provides an overview of ongoing work integrating experimental results and observations with numerical analysis by means of a cohesive zone model tailored for asphalt concrete fracture behavior.     

Transient temperature responses in biological materials under pulsed IR irradiation

In this work, an experimental setup has been established to provide a second-pulsed IR irradiation as a heating source and corresponding measuring system of transient temperature responses for biological materials. The processed meat is selected as specimen. The temperature responses of the specimens are measured for various specimen thicknesses. Theoretically, the classical Fourier model for heterogeneous medium and the dual-phase-lagging model (DPL) (including the thermal wave situation) are employed to simulate the temperature responses of the specimens. By comparing with the experimental results, it is found that the temperature response has not shown a jump caused by thermal wave propagation as that appeared in the literature, but a wave-like shape predicted by the DPL model, which is almost the same as the numerical results from the Fourier model for heterogeneous medium. On basis of these results, the evaluating method of transient thermal response inside biological materials is discussed.     

Microscale Experiments at Elevated Temperatures Evaluated with Digital Image Correlation

The methods of uniform heating and resistive (Joule) heating for microscale freestanding surface-micromachined thin metal film specimens were evaluated by a combination of full-field strain measurements by optical microscopy/Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and microscopic infrared (IR) imaging. The efficacy of each method was qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated with the aid of strain fields and IR-obtained temperature distributions along 850 nm thick freestanding microscale specimens subjected to uniaxial tension while heated by each method. The strain and temperature fields were quite uniform in experiments carried out with uniform specimen heating except for minor end-effects at the specimen grips. However, the resistively heated specimens showed highly uneven temperature distribution varying by 50°C along the 1,000 μm specimen gauge length. This high temperature gradient resulted in strain localization and 40% reduction in yield and ultimate tensile strengths of resistively heated specimens compared to the uniformly heated ones. Therefore, it is concluded that resistive heating is not a reliable method for conducting microscale temperature experiments with metallic films.     

Thermal analysis in swirl motion of Maxwell nanofluid over a rotating circular cylinder

In this paper, the mechanism of thermal energy transport in swirling flow of the Maxwell nanofluid induced by a stretchable rotating cylinder is studied. The rotation of the cylinder is kept constant in order to avoid the induced axially secondary flow. Further, the novel features of heat generation/absorption, thermal radiation, and Joule heating are studied to control the rate of heat transfer. The effects of Brownian and thermophoretic forces exerted by the Maxwell nanofluid to the transport ...     

Temperature measurement of a curved surface using thermographic phosphors

An optical technique for surface temperature measurement based on the fluorescent emission of rare earth ion-doped phosphors was demonstrated in an experiment with a heated cylinder in crossflow. In this experiment, a uniform heat flux was imposed by applying a constant voltage across the thin stainless steel cylinder surface to produce surface temperatures between 24°C and 55°C. The fluorescent emission of a thermographic phosphor, lanthanum oxysulfide doped with europium (La₂0₂S:Eu³⁺) deposited on the surface, was recorded to determine the temperature distribution at the curved surface. When excited by ultraviolet radiation, the phosphor emits a spectrum containing certain emission lines, the intensities of which vary with temperature. For a single temperature-sensitive line, ratios of the intensity at a reference temperature to the intensity at different temperatures were correlated as a function of surface temperature. The use of intensity ratio correlations avoids complications due to geometric (viewing angle) effects. Digitized images of the cylinder permitted calculation of surface temperatures and local Nusselt numbers. Differences between surface temperatures measured by calibrated thermocouples and temperatures determined from the phosphor technique were at most 1.2°C.     

非线性热环境下高温合金蜂窝板隔热性能研究

金属蜂窝板结构在高温热环境下的隔热特性是高速飞行器热防护设计的重要参数. 使用自行研制的高速飞行器瞬态气动热试验模拟系统, 对高温合金蜂窝平板结构在高达800℃的非线性热环境下的隔热性能进行实验研究, 获得了蜂窝板结构的瞬态和稳态传热特性以及在多种不同温度下金蜂窝平板结构隔热效果的实验数据. 在考虑结构内部蜂窝芯壁面间辐射、金属结构的传热以及蜂窝腔内空气传热的多重热交换条件下, 采用三维有限元计算方法对蜂窝板的隔热特性进行了数值模拟, 计算结果和试验结果的吻合性良好, 验证了数值模拟方法的可信性和有效性, 并为数值模拟方法能够在一定程度上较好地替代价格昂贵的气动热模拟试验打下了基础. 讨论了在复杂非线性高温环境下金属蜂窝板隔热效率的变化, 加热面温度的升降速度与隔热效率的关联性以及金属蜂窝板表面发射率的选取等问题, 对高速飞行器金属蜂窝结构的热防护研究具有重要的参考价值.      

A method for measuring the creep behavior of pressurized polymer tubing

Polymer components have been proposed for use in domestic solar hot-water heating systems. A polymer heat exchanger is under development for such systems. For heat transfer considerations, the heat exchanger will comprise many thin-walled tubes. The heat exchanger must survive 10 years of service at high pressure (1.55 MPa) and high temperature (82°C). A novel method has been developed for evaluating the long-term performance (creep) of the polymer tubing. Traditional creep testing, performed with dog bone test specimens, cannot be applied because the thin-walled tubing has anisotropic material properties. Consequently, performance must be evaluated directly on the extruded tubing. The method entails wrapping a Constantan wire around the tube specimen to continuously record the hoop strain. For pressure loading of tubing, this method offers significant improvements over strain gage instrumentation. In this paper, the test method is described, an analysis of the strain transfer between the tubing and wire wrap is presented, and strain data for polypropylene tubing measured with a strain gage and wire wrap are compared. The data show that the wire measurement method can be successfully used for the characterization of long-term mechanical behavior of polymer tubes.     

Incremental collapse of thick-walled circular cylinders under steady axial tension and torsion loads and cyclic transient heating

The accumulation of plastic strain over a number of cycles of heating and cooling of the outer surface of a loaded thick-walled circular cylinder is computed. Two types of loadings are considered, viz. pure axial torsion and a combination of torsion and tension. The cylinder material is taken to be isotropic and linear strain-hardening; its yield stress reduces with temperature and with the number of thermal cycles completed. This cyclic softening is shown to produce an incremental collapse or ratcheting behaviour in contrast to the alternating plasticity which occurs when the yield stress on first loading is maintained.     

Some specific features and consequences of the thermal response of rubber under cyclic mechanical loading

The present paper deals with the specificities of the thermal response of rubber under cyclic mechanical loading at constant ambient temperature. This question is important, since the stabilized thermal response is used in fatigue life criteria, especially for the fast evaluation of fatigue life. For this purpose, entropic coupling in a thermo-hyperelastic framework is first used to predict the variation in the heat source produced or absorbed by the material during cyclic loading. The heat diffusion equation is then used to deduce temperature variations under adiabatic and non-adiabatic conditions. The influence of several parameters on the stabilized thermal response is studied: signal shape, frequency, minimum and maximum stretch levels, multiaxiality of the mechanical state. The results show that, in the steady-state regime, the mean value between the maximum and minimum temperature variations over a mechanical cycle is different from zero. This is due to the specific variation in the heat source, which depends on both the stretch rate and the stretch level. This result has numerous consequences, in particular for fatigue. Indeed, the stabilized mean value between the maximum and minimum temperature variations during fatigue tests does not reflect only fatigue damage, since the entropic coupling also leads to a value different from zero. This is a major difference with respect to materials exhibiting only isentropic coupling, such as metallic materials.