Textual Alchemy: The Transformation of Pseudo-Albertus Magnus's Semita Recta into the Mirror of Lights

Abstract

This article explores the strategies of and the reasons behind the reworking of pseudo-Albertus Magnus's Semita recta into the Mirror of Lights. I argue that the redactor sought to provide a more comprehensive defence of the legitimacy of alchemy than found in the Semita recta. In the process of doing so, he reshaped the original text so as to present three units that addressed different parts of the alchemical opus: first, theory and justification of alchemy; second, basic information on substances and procedures; and, third, practice. The redactor employed sophisticated textual tools identical to those seen in scholastic texts. These strategies, I argue, constitute part of the redactor's attempt to bring authority and credibility to his project and to alchemy in general. Certainly, much more attention needs to be paid to these experiments of textual alchemy in order to understand the practice of alchemy in the late medieval period.     

The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science

Abstract

This paper explores the theory of metal generation through mineral exhalations, and its connection to the view of metals as composite substances. In Aristotle's theory, the vapour stage was important for allowing the elemental mixing necessary for generating composite yet homogeneous metallic matter. The idea of exhalations was variously incorporated with the Sulfur–Mercury theory of metal composition by medieval Arab authors, and the diversity of ways in which these ideas were utilised together by later European authors is also considered. The main strengths of the mineral exhalation theory were compositional flexibility and upward mobility: the mixing of protometallic vapours, which could vary compositionally and react with other mineral matter during their movement through subterranean regions, seemed sufficient for producing a plurality of metals and ores. The considerable diversity of thought concerning these processes continued as the idea of mineral seeds and aqueous minerallogenesis became influential during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The compositional emphasis of the vapour theory was ill-suited to an overriding mechanism for imparting specific form, such as mineral seeds, while evidence for the reality of mineral vapours continued to mount throughout the eighteenth century.     

Between Aquinas and Eymerich: The Roman Inquisition’s Use of Dominican Thought in the Censorship of Alchemy

In the latter half of the sixteenth century the Roman Inquisition developed criteria to prosecute a series of operative arts, including various forms of divination and magic. Its officials had little interest in alchemy. During that period the Roman Inquisition tried few people for practising alchemy, and it was rarely discussed in official documents. Justifications for prosecuting alchemists did exist, however. In his influential handbook, Directorium inquisitorum, the fourteenth-century inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich had developed a clear rationale for the investigation and prosecution of alchemists as heretics. His position was endorsed in the 1570s by Francisco Peña in his commentary on Eymerich’s handbook. In this article I explore the reasons why alchemy held this ambiguous status. I argue that members of the Dominican Order developed two traditions of thinking about alchemy from Aquinas’s thought. The first, and closest to Aquinas’s own belief, held that alchemy was a natural art that posed no danger to the Christian faith. The second, developed by Eymerich from a selective reading of Aquinas’s writings, indicated specific circumstances in which alchemists could be investigated. The Roman Inquisition’s response to alchemy vacillated between the positions advocated by Aquinas and Eymerich.     

Early Theories of Aqueous Mineral Genesis in the Sixteenth Century

Abstract

The generation of minerals is recognised as one of the most important issues of premodern chemical science. While stony minerals and gems were believed to have origins associated with water at least from Hellenic times, the generation of metals was thought to involve the mineral exhalations first proposed by Aristotle. Exhalation theory was coupled with the Sulfur–Mercury view of metal composition by medieval Arab authors, after which it became, in various forms, the principal theory of metallogenesis up to the seventeenth century. From this background, the appearance in the sixteenth century of fully developed theories in which all mineral substances arise from aqueous processes seems quite sudden. I discuss and compare three of the earliest aqueous mineral theories: those of Georgius Agricola, Paracelsus, and Bernard Palissy. The details of these innovative ideas are emphasised, revealing the degree of variety with which aqueous minerallogenesis entered the literature. These theories constituted a break from the traditional exhalation theories, and reflect the influence of observations connected to familiarity with mining operations. However, a role for mineral vapours was kept and expanded upon by subsequent authors who adopted the idea of minerallogenesis through aqueous processes. I thus attempt to demonstrate the versatility and explanatory power with which aqueous minerallogenesis entered the literature.     

Stoicism and Alchemy in Late Antiquity: Zosimus and the Concept of Pneuma

At the beginning of the twentieth century, historians associated the alchemy of the third-century alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis with Platonism and Aristotelianism, explicating his theory of alchemical transmutation under the intellectual umbrella of these philosophical traditions. More recently, scholars of alchemy such as Christina Viano and William Newman have suggested a connection between Zosimean alchemy and Stoicism. Through a close reading of texts in Zosimus’s corpus, this paper posits a Stoic interpretation of several aspects of Zosimean alchemy, focusing on the concepts of pneuma and tension. For Zosimus, I argue, pneuma played a vital role in colouring metals, while tension conferred stability and cohesion upon metallic compounds. This interpretation suggests that Zosimus applied Stoic concepts to describe the alchemical process of tincturing metals.     

Establishing the Canon: George Ripley and his Alchemical Sources

Abstract

George Ripley, Canon of Bridlington (ca. 1415 to ca. 1490) was one of England's most famous alchemists, whose alchemical opera attracted study and commentary throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and were printed and translated both in England and abroad. Yet Ripley's frequently baffling texts have proved resistant to scholarly interpretation. This paper attempts to unravel some of Ripley's alchemical theories and practice, firstly by identifying his major sources, and secondly by gauging his response to these texts. For instance, although Ripley's interest in the corpus of alchemical texts pseudonymously attributed to Ramon Lull is well documented, it transpires that his best known work, the Compound of Alchemy, or Twelve Gates, is actually based not on a Lullian work, but on a Latin treatise that Ripley attributed to the little-known alchemist, Guido de Montanor. Further clues to Ripley's alchemical thought can be obtained by considering his handling of a potential conflict between his two authorities, Lull and Guido. The resulting insights into Ripley's alchemy provide an instrument for assessing which of Ripley's pseudoepigraphic works can be truly called "canonical".     

Translating Ancient Alchemy: Fragments of Graeco-Egyptian Alchemy in Arabic Compendia

Translation played a vital role in the development and transfer of alchemy in Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Since its origins in Graeco-Roman Egypt, alchemy was encapsulated in Greek texts which allegedly relied on Persian or Egyptian sources. Later, a variety of Greek and Byzantine writings were translated into Syriac and Arabic, and these translations were in turn fragmented and disseminated in later Arabic compendia. This paper will first review the main phases of this historical process of transmission of alchemy from one language and culture to another. Second, this process will be examined using two significant case studies: a close analysis of various quotations from Graeco-Egyptian authors (Pseudo-Democritus, Zosimus of Panopolis, and Synesius) as presented in two Arabic dialogues on alchemy, The Tome of Images and The Dialogue between āras and the King Caesar. These sources demonstrate some of the concrete textual realities that underlie general patterns of translation and reception.     

Alchemy,Prophecy, and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Iberia: Anselmo Castelo Branco's Critique of Benito Feijoo

The Benedictine monk Benito Jerónimo Feijoo (1676–1764) is now considered one of the major figures of the Spanish and Iberian Enlightenment. However his work, both in Spain and in Portugal, was far from being universally acclaimed. His critical approach to the subject of alchemy in his essay “Piedra Filosofal,” published in the third volume of his magisterial Teatro Crítico Universal (1726–1739), sparked an unexpected response from the Portuguese alchemist Anselmo Castelo Branco, who sought to refute Feijoo's claims in his own work, the Ennoea. This paper presents an outline of this exchange and its position within Iberian Enlightenment circles. It further argues that Castelo Branco's defence of alchemy was informed by his political and prophetic views, in particular his adherence to the Portuguese messianic doctrine of Sebastianism.     

Structures and luminescent properties of Sm(III) and Dy(III) coordination polymers with 2,4,6-pyridinetricarboxylic acid

Two rare earth coordination compounds with 2,4,6-pyridinetricarboxylic acid (H₃pta) have been synthesized by the hydrothermal method; the formula is {[RE(pta)(H₂O)₃]?·?H₂O} _n [RE?=?Sm (1) and Dy (2)]. Complexes 1 and 2 are crystallized in the monoclinic crystal system with P2₁/c space group. X-ray structure analyses show the two complexes have the same structure. Each pta^3? connects three rare earth ions. Both the Sm(III) and Dy(III) complexes exhibit characteristic luminescence in the visible region upon excitation with UV-rays.     

Atomization efficiencies in halocarbon-loaded acetylene-air flames—II. Formation of dihalides and combined effects on vaporization and gas phase atomization processes

Halocarbon vapours (CCl₄ and in some cases CF₂Cl₂) were introduced into an acetylene-air flame at increasing rates while nebulizing individual solutions of alkaline earth elements, iron, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, tin and also magnesium in the presence of aluminium matrix. Following the theory developed by Sugden and Bulewicz dealing with the signal depression caused by the presence of halocarbons, the formation of dichloride species for the alkaline earth metals and also for iron, manganese and chromium could be elucidated. From the anomalous shapes of the Sugden-Bulewicz plots, incomplete solute vaporization is inferred for magnesium in the presence of aluminium. For the latter binary system, an almost complete evaporation of magnesium could be attained at 1.2% volume concentration of CCl₄ vapour in the flame.     

Books,Gold, and Elixir: Alchemy and Religious Orders in Early Modern Naples

In the early modern period Naples was a European centre of learning where a number of scholars engaged with alchemy. Variously perceived as a legitimate scientific practice or as a mendacious trick for gullible minds, alchemy engaged Neapolitan scholars in an ongoing dispute that involved members of the clergy. In this article I consider convents as research centres mainly engaged with medical alchemy. Specifically, I reconstruct the activity of the Dominican friar Tommaso d’Eremita. Upon his arrival at the Neapolitan convent of Santa Caterina a Formello in 1609, d’Eremita set up a laboratory where he spent years working on alchemical procedures in order to produce an elixir of life for the benefit of all. Beyond this charitable mission, I argue that members of religious orders in Naples engaged with alchemy for different purposes. In so doing, I discuss the cases of some members of religious orders in Naples who practised chrysopoeia with the aim of producing artificial noble metals.     

“I am the Poison Dripping Dragon”: Iguanas and Their Symbolism in the Alchemical and Occult Paintings of David Teniers the Younger

Abstract

“I am the poison-dripping dragon, who is everywhere and can be cheaply had … my water and fire destroy and put together; from my body you may extract the green lion and the red … From my snout there comes a spreading poison that has brought death to many …By the philosophers I am named Mercurius … I am the old dragon found everywhere on the globe of the earth … I am the carbuncle of the sun, the most noble purified earth through which you may change iron, tin, and lead into gold …”

“The Spirit Mercurius”

Theatrum Chemicum, 1659     

白云鄂博矿中深部弱磁尾矿中稀土的赋存状态研究

运用化学分析、场发射扫描电镜、X射线能谱仪及AMICS自动矿物分析系统等分析方法对白云鄂博中深部矿石弱磁尾矿中稀土的赋存状态进行研究,研究结果表明:中深部弱磁尾矿中稀土品位为9.66%,稀土矿物主要是氟碳铈矿和独居石,且二者的比例随着开采深度的增加由原来的7∶3~6∶4逐渐变化为3∶1,氟碳铈矿的比例明显增大。元素含量种类较多,矿物的组成非常复杂,嵌布粒度很细,稀土矿物在38μm粒度以下累积量超过了90%。稀土矿物主要是与铁矿物、萤石连生,解离度较高,利于稀土矿物分选。氟碳铈矿和独居石主要以单体存在,呈微细粒状、断续或者连续条带状分布于石英、闪石、铁矿物、萤石、磷灰石、霓石、方解石中。此研究结果对白云鄂博矿中深部弱磁尾矿中稀土的高效综合利用具有重要的指导意义。     

矿石中锑的快速分析测定研究

提出了矿石中0.00X～XX%不同含量范围内锑的极谱-原子吸收法快速分析方法。该方法使锑在2%H₂SO₄-10%HCl同一被测体系中既可以应用于极谱法,也可应用于原子吸收法测定;方法快速简便,高效准确,已用于锑矿的采、选、冶生产过程控制分析,效果良好。     

Probing ore deposits formation: New insights and challenges from synchrotron and neutron studies

The understanding of the physico-chemical processes leading to the formation and weathering of ore deposits plays an increasingly important role in mineral exploration. Synchrotron, neutron, and nuclear radiation are contributing to this endeavour in many ways, including (i) support the modelling of ore transport and deposition, by providing molecular-level understanding of solvent–solute interaction and thermodynamic properties for the important metal complexes in brines, vapours, and supercritical fluids over the range of conditions relevant for the formation of ore deposits (i.e., temperature 25–600 °C; pressure 1–10⁹ Pa; and fluid compositions varying from hypersaline (e.g., >50 wt% NaCl) to volatile-rich (e.g., CO₂, CH₄, and H₂S)); (ii) track the fluids that travelled through rocks and predict their ore-forming potential by analysing hydrothermal minerals and remnants of those fluids trapped in these minerals as ‘fluid inclusions’; (iii) characterize the biochemical controls on metal mobility in soils to predict the geochemical footprint of a buried mineral deposit.X-ray fluorescence (XRF), particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) are the most common techniques used in support of mineral exploration. Analytical challenges are related to (i) the complexity of heterogeneous natural samples, which often contain only low concentrations of the elements of interest; (ii) beam sensitivity, especially for redox-sensitive elements in aqueous fluids or biological samples; (iii) extreme sample environments, e.g., in-situ study of fluids at high pressure and temperature. Thus, critical improvements need to be made on a number of fronts to: (i) develop more efficient detectors, able to map large areas in heterogeneous samples (e.g., 10⁶–10⁸ pixels per map), and also to collect a maximum number of photons to limit sample exposure and beam damage; (ii) integrate techniques (e.g., XRF, XAS, and X-ray diffraction (XRD)) on a single beamline, and promote synergy between neutron-, synchrotron-, and nuclear microprobe-based methods; (iii) advance the theory (e.g., quantitative XANES interpretation; X-ray extended range technique (XERT) measurements) to gain maximum information from the hard-won datasets.     

SEM-, EDS- and GDOES investigations for the identification of historical ferrous ore and slag from Sternmühlenthal valley in the outskirts of Chemnitz

SEM, EDS and GDOES investigations on ferrous ore and slag samples contribute to the local history of mining and metallurgy. Quantitative X-ray analysis confirms the ore to be limonite. The slag consists of fayalithe and incompletely reduced ore parts (iron scale). Additional calcium and charcoal inclusions were reactants of the bloomery process. The charcoal shows anatomical details of spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). A multitude of typical trace elements was detected by GDOES both in ore and slag samples. The comparison of normalised GDOES signals for a series of constituents showed that the ore from the assumed deposit (Euba) was processed in the location (Sternmühlenthal), where the slag was discarded. The process was probably performed in the 17th century. Received: 30 July 1997 / Revised: 30 January 1998 / Accepted: 3 February 1998     

系列双核稀土配合物的合成、晶体结构及光物理性质

本文采用水热法合成了4种双核稀土配合物[Y₂(p-MBA)₆(Phen)₂] (1)、[Y₂(p-ClBA)₆(Phen)₂] (2)、[Pr₂(BA)₆(Phen)₂](3)和[Pr₂(p-ClBA)₆(H₂O)₂(Phen)₂](4)[Phen=邻菲咯啉、p-MBA=对甲基苯甲酸、BA=苯甲酸、p-ClBA=对氯苯甲酸]。测定了4种配合物的单晶结构。4种配合物在结构和配位方式上有很多的相似之处,它们的晶体都属于三斜晶系,P1空间群。在分子中,每个稀土离子与1个邻菲咯啉分子螯合,2个稀土离子均以苯甲酸根或其衍生物为桥。但是,桥连配体的数目以及配体的配位方式不尽相同。配合物4中配位水分子与对氯苯甲酸根之间形成了氢键,氢键将双核配合物4连接成二维层状网络结构。对4种配合物的UV-Vis-NIR、IR和荧光性质进行了测定和对比分析。配合物1和2的荧光指认为LLCT和LMCT,而配合物3和4的荧光表现出LLCT与LMCT混合跃迁及Pr³⁺的特征发射。