Spray and jet cooling in steel rolling

Prediction and control of roll and strip cooling are necessary in modern steel mills because they not only affect the process efficiency but also strongly influence the quality of rolled products. In this article, relationships among metallurgy, heat transfer, and control of the cooling system in steel rolling are first discussed. Heat transfer characteristics associated with the water spray and jet cooling used in rolling processes are then studied. The effects of important convective heat transfer parameters on cooling perormance for both stationary and moving surfaces are examined. Results indicate that local heat fluxes up to 20 × 10⁶ W/m² are observed in the nucleate boiling regime. The present results are compared with typical boiling heat transfer studies in terms of heat fluxes, heat transfer coefficients, spray rate, and cooling efficiency. The effect of surface motion is found to increase the cooling efficiency of roll and strip cooling. Finally, implementation of the present finding in roll and strip cooling to thermomechanical processing in steel rolling is proposed.     

Ultra fast cooling of hot steel plate by air atomized spray with salt solution

In the present study, the applicability of air atomized spray with the salt added water has been studied for ultra fast cooling (UFC) of a 6 mm thick AISI-304 hot steel plate. The investigation includes the effect of salt (NaCl and MgSO₄) concentration and spray mass flux on the cooling rate. The initial temperature of the steel plate before the commencement of cooling is kept at 900 °C or above, which is usually observed as the “finish rolling temperature” in the hot strip mill of a steel plant. The heat transfer analysis shows that air atomized spray with the MgSO₄ salt produces 1.5 times higher cooling rate than atomized spray with the pure water, whereas air atomized spray with NaCl produces only 1.2 times higher cooling rate. In transition boiling regime, the salt deposition occurs which causes enhancement in heat transfer rate by conduction. Moreover, surface tension is the governing parameter behind the vapour film instability and this length scale increases with increase in surface tension of coolant. Overall, the achieved cooling rates produced by both types of salt added air atomized spray are found to be in the UFC regime.     

Experimental study of the effect of spray inclination on ultrafast cooling of a hot steel plate

The ultrafast cooling that occurs during high mass flux air-atomized spray impingement on a hot 6 mm thick stainless steel plate has been studied experimentally in terms of the nozzle inclination between 0° and 60°. The average mass flux of water used in the study accounts to 510 kg/m² s. The coolants used in the study are pure water and surfactant water of 600 ppm concentration. The initial temperature of the plate has been maintained at 900 °C, which is the temperature of a hot strip on run-out table in steel industry. The transient surface heat flux and temperature histories have been estimated by an inverse heat solver using measured temperature input data. Heat transfer results demonstrates that optimum cooling efficiency (~2.76 MW/m², 194 °C/s) for pure water has been achieved at 30° nozzle orientation. The inclined nozzle has not been found beneficial when surfactant water is used as the coolant.     

Transient three-dimensional startup side load analysis of a regeneratively cooled nozzle

The objective of this effort is to develop a computational methodology to capture the side load physics and to anchor the computed aerodynamic side loads with the available data by simulating the startup transient of a regeneratively cooled, high-aspect-ratio nozzle, hot-fired at sea level. The computational methodology is based on an unstructured-grid, pressure-based, reacting flow computational fluid dynamics and heat transfer formulation, and a transient inlet history based on an engine system simulation. Emphases were put on the effects of regenerative cooling on shock formation inside the nozzle, and ramp rate on side load reduction. The results show that three types of asymmetric shock physics incur strong side loads: the generation of combustion wave, shock transitions, and shock pulsations across the nozzle lip, albeit the combustion wave can be avoided with sparklers during hot-firing. Results from both regenerative cooled and adiabatic wall boundary conditions capture the early shock transitions with corresponding side loads matching the measured secondary side load. It is theorized that the first transition from free-shock separation to restricted-shock separation is caused by the Coanda effect. After which the regeneratively cooled wall enhances the Coanda effect such that the supersonic jet stays attached, while the hot adiabatic wall fights off the Coanda effect, and the supersonic jet becomes detached most of the time. As a result, the computed peak side load and dominant frequency due to shock pulsation across the nozzle lip associated with the regeneratively cooled wall boundary condition match those of the test, while those associated with the adiabatic wall boundary condition are much too low. Moreover, shorter ramp time results show that higher ramp rate has the potential in reducing the nozzle side loads.

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Heat transfer during transient cooling of high temperature surface with an impinging jet

 An experimental study of transient boiling heat transfer during a cooling of a hot cylindrical block with an impinging water jet has been made at atmospheric pressure. The experimental data were taken for the following conditions: a degree of subcooling of ΔT _sub = 20–80 K, a jet velocity of u _j  = 5–15 m/s, a nozzle diameter of d _j  = 2 mm and three materials of copper, brass and carbon steel. The block was initially and uniformly heated to about 250 °C and the transient temperatures in the block were measured at eight locations in r-direction at two different depths from the surface during the cooling of hot block. The surface heat flux distribution with time was evaluated using a numerical analysis of 2-D heat conduction. Behavior of the wetting front, which is extending the nucleate boiling region outward, is observed with a high-speed video camera. A position of wetting region is measured and it is correlated well with a power function of time. The changes in estimated heat flux and temperature were compared with the position of wetting region to clarify the effects of subcooling, jet velocity and thermal properties of block on the transient cooling. Received on 17 March 2000     

Cold rolling mill process: a numerical procedure for industrial applications

The paper proposes a model for a cold rolling mill process in the full-film regime that uses lubricant emulsion sprayed on at the entrance of the strip. The aim of the model is to forecast the reduction of strip thickness versus the flow rate of lubricant given the other operation parameters. The model includes strip plastic deformation, lubricant flow and lubricant viscosity depending on pressure. The mathematical problem is a free boundary one and a numerical procedure, applied to an industrial plant, is presented with some results.     

Displacement mechanisms of enhanced heavy oil recovery by alkaline flooding in a micromodel

Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) by alkaline flooding for conventional oils has been extensively studied. For heavy oils, investigations are very limited due to the unfavorable mobility ratio between the water and oil phases. In this study, the displacement mechanisms of alkaline flooding for heavy oil EOR are investigated by conducting flood tests in a micromodel. Two different displacement mechanisms are observed for enhancing heavy oil recovery. One is in situ water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion formation and partial wettability alteration. The W/O emulsion formed during the injection of alkaline solution plugs high permeability water channels, and pore walls are altered to become partially oil-wetted, leading to an improvement in sweep efficiency and high tertiary oil recovery. The other mechanism is the formation of an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. Heavy oil is dispersed into the water phase by injecting an alkaline solution containing a very dilute surfactant. The oil is then entrained in the water phase and flows out of the model with the water phase.     

Transient temperature measurements in a convectively cooled droplet

 The transient cooling of an evaporating water droplet, suspended in a jet of dry air, was experimentally investigated in this study using thermochromic liquid crystal thermography. Microencapsulated beads of thermochromic liquid crystals, suspended in the water droplets, enabled the visualization of the transient temperature fields within the droplets. Digital movies of the convectively cooled droplets reveal spatial and temporal temperature gradients resolved down to length scales of ∼100 μm and time scales of ∼0.03 s. The transient temperature measurements were analyzed to yield total droplet convective heat transfer rates. Droplet heat transfer rates determined from a heat balance on the droplets compare favorably to previously published measurements. Received: 11 June 1997/Accepted: 26 March 1998     

Thermal analysis of the roll in the strip casting process

Coiled strip can be directly produced through the twin-roll strip casting process from the melt by incorporating casting and hot rolling together into a single step. In this unique process, the strip formation from the molten metal critically relies upon the casting rolls. Thus, the design of the rolls is extremely essential. The coupled heat transfer and deformation analysis of the casting roll is carried out in a two-dimensional numerical model, using a finite element program (MARC) to examine the thermal stress and displacement. The effects of several factors such as the nickel overlay thickness on the roll surface, the casting speed, and the roll diameter on thermal characteristics are investigated.     

Heat (mass) transfer between an impinging jet and a rotating disk

The aim of this experimental study is to investigate the heat (mass) transfer of a rotating disk with an impinging circular jet. To facilitate the experiments, the naphthalene sublimation technique was employed. In order to analyze the results, measurements of the heat (mass) transfer of a stationary disk with an impinging jet and a rotating disk without jet impingement were also made. From the experimental results, it is found that the heat (mass) transfer are precisely divided into three regimes, namely the impingement dominated regime; the mixed regime and the rotation dominated regime. Correlation of Sherwood number of a rotating disk with jet impingement is also proposed in the present work. Received on 12 January 1998     

Advances in the generation of a new emulsified fuel

The development of a new emulsified fuel is described, from the conceptual idea to the semi-industrial tests of the final product. The starting point was the necessity to lower the particulate matter (PM) emissions produced by the combustion of more than 200 MBD of heavy fuel oil (HFO) used for electric power conversion. The major component of HFO is a vacuum residue of the oil refining process mixed with light cycle oils to make it pumpable. An alternative to handle and burn the high viscosity residue (solid at room temperature) is by converting it in an oil-in-water emulsion. The best emulsions resulted of 70% residue in 30% water, Sauter Mean Diameter of 10–20 μm and a stability of more than 90 days. Spray burning tests of the emulsion against HFO in a semi-industrial 500 kW furnace showed a reduction in PM emissions of 24–36%.     

Forms of partial breakdown of an oil body in a compound vortex

Over a wide range of parameters, the pattern of a two-layer (sunflower oil-water) fluid flow in a compound vortex is visualized. The vortex is formed by a disk mounted on the bottom of a cylindrical container and rotating at a constant angular velocity. The shapes of the interface of two media (water-oil, oil-air) are determined for different flow regimes, and the conditions and types of their breakdown are studied. Under supercritical conditions, the individual oil droplets, detached from the oil-water interface, form a direct water-oil emulsion near the lower edge of the body. With increase in the angular velocity of the disk, an invert emulsion is formed, i.e. cells containing water with oil shells. The dimensions of typical structural components of the flow are determined.     

Gas-phase toluene LIF temperature imaging near surfaces at 10 kHz

Information on transient temperature distributions is important for the study of heat transfer and reacting flows, including combustion. Laser diagnostic methods have been developed for temperature imaging purposes but so far have largely been constrained to low temporal resolution measurements. Diode-pumped solid-state lasers and high frame rate CMOS cameras have enabled the development of a gas-phase temperature imaging method based on laser-induced fluorescence of toluene. Excitation of toluene at 266 nm results in temperature-dependent fluorescence emissions that were detected in two spectral regions, yielding a temperature-dependent signal ratio that was calibrated for the range of 100 to 600°C. Experiments were performed in a well-stabilized heated nitrogen jet, seeded with toluene. The precision of the diagnostics increases with decreasing temperature due to an overall increase in signal strength. The application of this technique to measure the transient temperature field at 10 kHz frame rates in the boundary layer of a hot gas jet impinging on a cooled metal plate is demonstrated.     

Numerical simulation of heat transfer in a micro channel heat sinks using nanofluids

In this study, a numerical simulation of copper microchannel heatsink (MCHS) using nanofluids as coolants is presented. The nanofluid is a mixture of pure water and nanoscale metallic or nonmetallic particles with various volume fractions. Also, the effects of various volume fractions, volumetric flow rate and various materials of nanoparticles on the performance of MCHS have been developed. A three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model was developed using the commercial software package FLUENT, to investigate the conjugate fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena in micro channel heatsinks. The results show that the cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with water based nanofluid containing Al₂O₃ (vol 8%) is enhanced by about 4.5% compared with micro channel heatsink with pure water. Nanofluids reduce both the thermal resistance and the temperature difference between the top (heated) surface of the MCHS and inlet nanofluid compared with that pure water. The cooling performance of a micro channel heat sink with metal nanofluids improves compared with that of a micro channel heat sink with oxide metal nanofluids because the thermal conductivity of metal nanofluid is higher than oxide metal nanofluids. Micro channel heat sinks with nanofluids are expected to be good candidates as the next generation cooling devices for removing ultra high heat flux.     

Buoyancy and cross flow effects on heat transfer of multiple impinging slot air jets cooling a flat plate at different orientations

The present article reports on heat transfer characteristics associated with multiple laminar impinging air jet cooling a hot flat plat at different orientations. The work aims to study the interactions of the effects of cross flow, buoyancy induced flow, orientation of the hot surface with respect to gravity, Reynolds numbers and Rayleigh numbers on heat transfer characteristics. Experiments have been carried out for different values of jet Reynolds number, Rayleigh number and cross flow strength and at different orientations of the air jet with respect to the target hot plate. In general, the effective cooling of the plate has been observed to be increased with increasing Reynolds number and Rayleigh number. The results concluded that the hot surface orientation is important for optimum performance in practical applications. It was found that for Re ≥ 400 and Ra ≥ 10,000 (these ranges give 0.0142 ≤ Ri ≤ 1.59 the Nusselt number is independent on the hot surface orientation. However, for Re ≤ 300 and Ra ≥ 100,000 (these ranges give 1.59 ≤ Ri ≤ 42.85): (i) the Nusselt number for horizontal orientation with hot surface facing down is less that that of vertical orientation and that of horizontal orientation with hot surface facing up, and (ii) the Nusselt number of vertical orientation is approximately the same as that of horizontal orientation with hot surface facing up. For all surfaces orientations and for the entire ranges of Re and Ra, it was found that increasing the cross flow strength decreases the effective cooling of the surface.     

乳化液润滑冷轧铝板表面缺陷分析

针对乳化液润滑冷轧铝板表面出现的黑色条纹状缺陷及腐蚀斑缺陷进行了研究,分别使用表面形貌仪、扫描电子显微镜对铝板的表面形貌和表面微观结构进行了观测。使用能量色散光谱和X射线光电子能谱对铝板表面的化学成分进行了分析,并探讨了表面缺陷产生的机理。结果表明：表面发黑缺陷是由于润滑失效导致表面出现微裂纹造成的,而腐蚀缺陷是由于局部残留水的作用在铝板表面发生电化学反应从而形成较厚的氧化层。     

Thermomechanical dynamic behavior of a disk subject to an impulsive thermal load at the center

The dynamic coupled thermoelastic problem formulation and the thermodynamically consistent theory of inelastic behavior of materials are used to solve an axisymmetric problem for a steel disk subject to a heat pulse at the center. The temperature dependence of the physical and mechanical properties of the disk is taken into account. The problem is solved by the FEM. The evolution in time and features of the strain-stress and thermal states of the disk and the dynamic effects accompanying the processes of heating and gradual cooling are studied __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 45–57, May 2008.     

Local heat transfer from a hot plate to a water jet

Jet impingement boiling is very efficient in cooling of hot surfaces as a part of the impinging liquid evaporates. Because of its importance to many cooling procedures, investigations on basic mechanisms of jet impingement boiling heat transfer are needed. Until now, most of the experimental studies, carried out under steady-state conditions, used a heat flux controlled system and were limited by the critical heat flux (CHF). The present study focuses on steady-state experiments along the entire boiling curve for hot plate temperatures of up to 700°C. A test section has been built up simulating a hot plate. It is divided into 8 independently heated modules of 10 mm length to enable local heat transfer measurements. By means of temperature controlled systems for each module local steady-state experiments in the whole range between single phase heat transfer and film boiling are possible. By solving the two dimensional inverse heat conduction problem, the local heat flux and the corresponding wall temperature on the surface of each module can be computed. The measurements show important differences between boiling curves measured at the stagnation line and those obtained in the parallel flow region. At the stagnation line, the transition boiling regime is characterised by very high heat fluxes, extended to large wall superheats. Inversely, boiling curves in the parallel flow region are very near to classical ones obtained for forced convection boiling. The analysis of temperature fluctuations measured at a depth of 0.8 mm from the boiling surface enables some conclusions on the boiling mechanism in the different boiling regimes.     

基于实验的数值反演的滚动轮胎稳态温度场的有限元分析

根据轮胎温度场的单向解耦分析思想,形成了一个基于ABAQUS程序的轮胎稳态温度场的分析方法,单向解耦过程分为变形、损耗、热传导三个分析过程。变形分析中,采用了平衡态的超弹性材料模型;损耗分析中,依据变形分析获得的应力应变场,结合材料粘性损耗特性来获得损耗能量;热传导分析中,依据实测的轮胎胎侧温度场,提出了一种基于实验的数值反演方法来确定胎侧的对流热边界条件。由于轮胎胎侧的形状和结构细节,其对流热边界不同于旋转平圆盘的对流热边界,本文的数值反演方法避免了实测胎侧对流热交换系数的困难。     

Heat transfer from an obliquely impinging circular, air jet to a flat plate

A series of experiments was conducted for the measurement of local convective heat transfer coefficients for an obliquely impinging circular air jet to a flat plate. In the experiments, the oblique angles selected were 90°, 75°, 60° and 45°, with 90° being a vertical jet. Two different Reynolds numbers of 10,000 and 23,000 were considered for the purpose of comparison with previous data available in the literature. Another parameter varied in the measurements was the dimensionless jet-to-plate distance, L/D. Four values of L/D(2, 4, 7, and 10) were considered in the experiments. The experiments were conducted using the preheated wall transient liquid-crystal technique. Liquid-crystal color changes were recorded with a video system. Local convective heat transfer coefficients were obtained through the surface transient temperatures that were related to the recorded color information. Detailed local heat transfer coefficients were presented and discussed in relation to the asymmetric wall jet upon impingement of the jet flow. Results of experiments show that, for a given flow situation, the point of maximum heat transfer shifts away from the geometrical impingement point toward the compression side of the wall jet on the axis of symmetry. The shift is more pronounced with a smaller oblique angle (larger jet inclination) and a smaller jet-to-plate distance. Comparisons of experimental results with existing heat transfer data for both obliquely impinging jets and vertical impinging jets are made. The effect of oblique angles on heat transfer was assessed.