Isolation of Functionalized Phenolic Monomers through Selective Oxidation and CO Bond Cleavage of the β‐O‐4 Linkages in Lignin

Functionalized phenolic monomers have been generated and isolated from an organosolv lignin through a two‐step depolymerization process. Chemoselective catalytic oxidation of β‐O‐4 linkages promoted by the DDQ/tBuONO/O₂ system was achieved in model compounds, including polymeric models and in real lignin. The oxidized β‐O‐4 linkages were then cleaved on reaction with zinc. Compared to many existing methods, this protocol, which can be achieved in one pot, is highly selective, giving rise to a simple mixture of products that can be readily purified to give pure compounds. The functionality present in these products makes them potentially valuable building blocks.     

A Comparison of Phenolic Monomers Produced from Different Types of Lignin by Phosphotungstic Acid Catalysts

Herein we studied the chemical structure of different types of lignin samples and the potential to prepare phenolic monomers was illustrated by phosphotungstic acid catalysts. Different types of H/G/S lignin components had different structures. The lignin extracted from poplar had the highest molecular weight and β-O-4 aryl ether contents, followed by pine and straw lignin samples. After depolymerization by PTA catalyst, the yields of phenolic monomers detected was 8.06 wt % (poplar), 5.44 wt % (pine) and 4.52 wt % (straw), respectively. Further, the ratios of H/G/S in the phenol monomers were also different, indicating that the S, G and H types structural units were continuously transformed with each other during the reaction. In our study, the change in the types of lignin samples resulted into an improvement of the distribution of phenolic products, and also the selectivity of phenolic monomers significantly.     

Palladium‐Catalyzed Formal Cross‐Coupling of Diaryl Ethers with Amines: Slicing the 4‐O‐5 Linkage in Lignin Models

Lignin is the second most abundant organic matter on Earth, and is an underutilized renewable source for valuable aromatic chemicals. For future sustainable production of aromatic compounds, it is highly desirable to convert lignin into value‐added platform chemicals instead of using fossil‐based resources. Lignins are aromatic polymers linked by three types of ether bonds (α‐O‐4, β‐O‐4, and 4‐O‐5 linkages) and other C?C bonds. Among the ether bonds, the bond dissociation energy of the 4‐O‐5 linkage is the highest and the most challenging to cleave. To date, 4‐O‐5 ether linkage model compounds have been cleaved to obtain phenol, cyclohexane, cyclohexanone, and cyclohexanol. The first example of direct formal cross‐coupling of diaryl ether 4‐O‐5 linkage models with amines is reported, in which dual C(Ar)?O bond cleavages form valuable nitrogen‐containing derivatives.     

Oxidative Coupling via Organocopper Compounds

The type of reaction described here, which achieved preparative importance before the turn of the century in the form of the Glaser reaction, has found new applications in recent years: Syntheses of 1,3-dienes, 2,3,6,7-tetraaza-1,3,5,7-tetraenes, 2,3-diaza-1,3-dienes, hydrazine derivatives, bis(heteroallyl) compounds, hetarenes, polyhetarenes, cyclopolyarenes, protophanes, phanes, and heteraprotophanes. The reaction, which consists in the metalation of the starting substance followed by oxidative coupling of the metal derivative, merits special preparative interest when several successive coupling processes are possible (e. g. polyyne, polyarene, cyclopolyarene, and protophane syntheses). The main factors limiting its applicability are the high thermal stability of some organic copper compounds and the disproportionation of the ligands that frequently occurs as a competing reaction. Selective asymmetric linkages are not generally possible by this method.     

Lewis Acid Assisted Nickel‐Catalyzed Cross‐Coupling of Aryl Methyl Ethers by C−O Bond‐Cleaving Alkylation: Prevention of Undesired β‐Hydride Elimination

In the presence of trialkylaluminum reagents, diverse aryl methyl ethers can be transformed into valuable products by C?O bond‐cleaving alkylation, for the first time without the limiting β‐hydride elimination. This new nickel‐catalyzed dealkoxylative alkylation method enables powerful orthogonal synthetic strategies for the transformation of a variety of naturally occurring and easily accessible anisole derivatives. The directing and/or activating properties of aromatic methoxy groups are utilized first, before they are replaced by alkyl chains in a subsequent coupling process.     

Added-Value Chemicals from Lignin Oxidation

Lignin is the second most abundant component, next to cellulose, in lignocellulosic biomass. Large amounts of this polymer are produced annually in the pulp and paper industries as a coproduct from the cooking process—most of it burned as fuel for energy. Strategies regarding lignin valorization have attracted significant attention over the recent decades due to lignin’s aromatic structure. Oxidative depolymerization allows converting lignin into added-value compounds, as phenolic monomers and/or dicarboxylic acids, which could be an excellent alternative to aromatic petrochemicals. However, the major challenge is to enhance the reactivity and selectivity of the lignin structure towards depolymerization and prevent condensation reactions. This review includes a comprehensive overview of the main contributions of lignin valorization through oxidative depolymerization to produce added-value compounds (vanillin and syringaldehyde) that have been developed over the recent decades in the LSRE group. An evaluation of the valuable products obtained from oxidation in an alkaline medium with oxygen of lignins and liquors from different sources and delignification processes is also provided. A review of C₄ dicarboxylic acids obtained from lignin oxidation is also included, emphasizing catalytic conversion by O₂ or H₂O₂ oxidation.     

Protection Group Effects During α,γ‐Diol Lignin Stabilization Promote High‐Selectivity Monomer Production

Protection groups were introduced during biomass pretreatment to stabilize lignin's α,γ‐diol group during its extraction and prevent its condensation. Acetaldehyde and propionaldehyde stabilized the α,γ‐diol without any aromatic ring alkylation, which significantly increased final product selectivity. The subsequent hydrogenolysis catalyzed by Pd/C generated lignin monomers at near‐theoretical yields based on Klason lignin (48 % from birch, 20 % from spruce, 70 % from high‐syringyl transgenic poplar), and with high selectivity to a single 4‐n‐propanolsyringol product (80 %) in the case of the poplar. Unlike direct hydrogenation of native wood, hydrogenolysis of protected lignin with Ni/C also led to high selectivity to this single product (78 %), paving the way to high‐selectivity lignin upgrading with base metal catalysts. The use of extracted lignin facilitated valorization of polysaccharides, leading to high yields of all three major biomass polymers to a single major product.     

Towards an Understanding of the Carbon-Carbon Bond

In this essay, the classical question of “the influence of the number and kind of substituents on the strength of the C? C bond”, is pursued with the modern tools of contemporary physical organic chemistry. Based on the work of Karl Ziegler, the products and kinetics of thermolysis of a large number of highly branched aliphatic hydrocarbons and phenyl- or cyano-substituted derivatives were investigated. For each class of compounds, a linear relationship was found between the free enthalpy of activation of the homolytic cleavage of the weakest C? C bond and the strain energy in the ground state. These relationships permitted a quantitative separation of steric and electronic effects on the cleavage of C? C bonds. The influence of the size of the substituent groups on bond angles, bond lengths, and the conformational behavior of model compounds was studied by means of experimental structure determinations and force field calculations. C? C bond lengths up to 164 pm, bond angles at tetracoordinate carbon as large as 126°, and unusual eclipsed and gauche preferred conformations were found.     

α‐Arylation of Carbonyl Compounds through Oxidative C−C Bond Activation

A synthetically useful approach for the direct α‐arylation of carbonyl compounds through a novel oxidative C?C bond activation is reported. This mechanistically unusual process relies on a 1,2‐aryl shift and results in all‐carbon quaternary centers. The transformation displays broad functional‐group tolerance and can in principle also be applied as an asymmetric variant.     

Transition‐Metal‐Mediated and ‐Catalyzed C−F Bond Activation by Fluorine Elimination

The activation of carbon–fluorine (C?F) bonds is an important topic in synthetic organic chemistry. Metal‐mediated and ‐catalyzed elimination of β‐ or α‐fluorine proceeds under milder conditions than oxidative addition to C?F bonds. The β‐ or α‐fluorine elimination is initiated from organometallic intermediates having fluorine substituents on carbon atoms β or α to metal centers, respectively. Transformations through these elimination processes (C?F bond cleavage), which are typically preceded by carbon–carbon (or carbon–heteroatom) bond formation, have been increasingly developed in the past five years as C?F bond activation methods. In this Minireview, we summarize the applications of transition‐metal‐mediated and ‐catalyzed fluorine elimination to synthetic organic chemistry from a historical perspective with early studies and from a systematic perspective with recent studies.     

Synthesis of Phenolic Compounds via Palladium Catalyzed C−H Functionalization of Arenes

Phenol and its derivatives are extremely useful compounds in organic synthesis, medicinal chemistry and material sciences. The synthesis of phenols involving selective construction of the C?O bond at a C?H bond of arenes using transition‐metal catalysis represents the most appealing strategy. Indeed, active research is currently going on for the synthesis of valuable phenolic compounds using a transition‐metal‐catalyzed C?H functionalization strategy. This short review summarizes recent advances on palladium‐catalyzed C?O bond forming reactions that enable direct access to phenolic compounds. These catalytic reactions proceed either via C?H esterification with trifluoroacetic acid/trifluoroacetic anhydride followed by in situ hydrolysis of the ester or via direct C?H hydroxylation. A brief analysis of substrate scope and limitation, reaction mechanism as well as synthetic utility of these reactions has been included.     

Catalyst‐Dependent Chemoselective Formal Insertion of Diazo Compounds into C−C or C−H Bonds of 1,3‐Dicarbonyl Compounds

A catalyst‐dependent chemoselective one‐carbon insertion of diazo compounds into the C?C or C?H bonds of 1,3‐dicarbonyl species is reported. In the presence of silver(I) triflate, diazo insertion into the C(=O)?C bond of the 1,3‐dicarbonyl substrate leads to a 1,4‐dicarbonyl product containing an all‐carbon α‐quaternary center. This reaction constitutes the first example of an insertion of diazo‐derived carbenoids into acyclic C?C bonds. When instead scandium(III) triflate was applied as the catalyst, the reaction pathway switched to formal C?H insertion, affording 2‐alkylated 1,3‐dicarbonyl products. Different reaction pathways are proposed to account for this powerful catalyst‐dependent chemoselectivity.     

Iron‐Catalyzed Radical Cleavage/C−C Bond Formation of Acetal‐Derived Alkylsilyl Peroxides

A novel radical‐based approach for the iron‐catalyzed selective cleavage of acetal‐derived alkylsilyl peroxides, followed by the formation of a carbon–carbon bond is reported. The reaction proceeds under mild reaction conditions and exhibits a broad substrate scope with respect to the acetal moiety and the carbon electrophile. Mechanistic studies suggest that the present reaction proceeds through a free‐radical process involving carbon radicals generated by the homolytic cleavage of a carbon–carbon bond within the acetal moiety. A synthetic application of this method to sugar‐derived alkylsilyl peroxides is also described.     

Mild C−H/C−C Activation by Z‐Selective Cobalt Catalysis

Cationic cobalt complexes enable unprecedented cobalt‐catalyzed C?H/C?C functionalizations with unique selectivity features. The versatile cobalt catalyst proved broadly applicable, enabled efficient C?H/C?C cleavage at room temperature, and delivered Z‐alkenes with excellent diastereocontrol.     

Ca1-xPrxFeO3催化热解甘蔗渣木质素制备酚类化合物

采用溶胶-凝胶法合成了一系列镨掺杂的铁酸钙氧化物(Ca_1-xPr_xFeO₃, 简称CPF-x), 优化了其焙烧机制, 研究了其对甘蔗渣木质素(BL)的催化热解作用, 考察了其再生性能. 研究结果表明, CPF-x适宜的合成及焙烧参数分别为: x=0.5, 焙烧温度为800 ℃, 焙烧时间为6 h, 在该条件下得到的CPF-0.5-800-6呈立方晶相, 为疏松多孔结构; 掺杂Pr后, 其比表面积提高了近3倍. CPF-0.5-800-6对BL催化热解最佳工艺参数为: m(CPF-0.5-800-6)∶m(BL)=1∶3, 热解温度为650 ℃, 液相收率最大可达20.73%, 其中主要产物为紫丁香酚类、 苯酚类及愈创木酚类, 其总选择性为63.21%. 以CPF-0.5-800-6为催化剂, 紫丁香酚类化合物选择性由20.60%增大到29.59%, 实现了提高BL催化热解中某种单酚化合物的选择性. CPF-0.5-800-6经5次催化热解-再生循环反应后, 仍具有良好的反应活性和结构稳定性.     

Lewis Acid Induced α-Alkylation of Carbonyl Compounds

Carbonyl compounds undergo α-alkylation via the corresponding silyl enol ethers using S_N1 active alkyl halides or acetates in the presence of Lewis acids. This methodology extends the scope of carbonyl chemistry considerably, since S_N1 active alkylating agents are generally base sensitive and therefore unsuitable for reactions with enolate anions or nitrogen analogs. A prime example is the α-tert-alkylation of aldehydes, ketones and esters.     

CaZr1-xFexO3催化热解甘蔗渣木质素制备酚类化合物

采用固相反应法制备了一系列钙钛矿型混合离子电子导体CaZr_1-xFe_xO₃(CZFO-x, x=0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0). 通过X射线衍射(XRD)、 扫描电子显微镜(SEM)及X射线光电子能谱(XPS)对其晶型、 形貌和金属赋存价态进行了表征. 采用热重分析仪(TG)测试了其催化苷蔗渣木质素(BL)热解性能, 并采用固定床微型反应器对其催化热解BL制备酚类化合物性能进行了评价, 利用气相色谱/质谱(GC/MS)对BL催化热解的气相和液相产物进行分析. 研究结果表明, CZFO-x呈粒状或层状致密结构, 随着Fe掺杂量的增加, 其特征衍射峰强度增大, 且衍射峰位置向大角度偏移, 晶胞体积及晶粒尺寸减小. 固定床反应结果显示, 在CaZr_0.8Fe_0.2O₃(CZFO-0.2)催化下, BL热解液相产物收率可达23.71%, 其中酚类化合物主要包括苯酚类、 愈创木基类、 邻苯二酚类和紫丁香基类, 其选择性分别为35.19%, 6.18%, 10.68%和14.21%, 其余产物为苯类和甲氧基芳香化合物. 反应后催化剂经氧化再生后, 仍然具有较高的催化活性和结构稳定性. 对BL催化热解气体产物进行分析发现, CZFO-0.2促进了芳香烃烷基侧链的断裂, 致使气相产物组成中C_mH_n和CH₄含量增加.     

Iridium‐Catalyzed Intramolecular Methoxy C−H Addition to Carbon–Carbon Triple Bonds: Direct Synthesis of 3‐Substituted Benzofurans from o‐Methoxyphenylalkynes

Catalytic hydroalkylation of an alkyne with methyl ether was accomplished. Intramolecular addition of the C?H bond of a methoxy group in 1‐methoxy‐2‐(arylethynyl)benzenes across a carbon–carbon triple bond took place efficiently either in toluene at 110 °C or in p‐xylene at 135 °C in the presence of an iridium catalyst. The initial 5‐exo cyclization products underwent double‐bond migration during the reaction to give 3‐(arylmethyl)benzofurans in high yields.