Anomaly in the dynamic strength of austenitic stainless steel 12Cr19Ni10Ti under shock wave loading

Measurement results for the shock wave compression profiles of 12Cr19Ni10Ti steel and its dynamic strength in the strain rate range 10⁵–10⁶ s^?1 are presented. The protracted viscous character of the spall fracture is revealed. With the previously obtained data taken into account, the measurement results are described by a polynomial relation, which can be used to construct the fracture kinetics. On the lower boundary of the range, the resistance to spall fracture is close to the value of the true strength of the material under standard low-rate strain conditions; on the upper boundary, the spall strength is more than twice greater than this quantity. An increase in the temperature results in a decrease in both the dynamic limit of elasticity and the spall fracture strength of steel. The most interesting result is the anomaly in the dependence of the spall fracture strength on the duration of the shock wave compression pulse, which is related to the formation of deformation martensite near the growing discontinuities.     

无钴合金钢的层裂断裂及数值模拟研究

利用一级轻气炮作为加载手段,对无钴合金钢的层裂特性进行了研究,获得了Hugoniot弹性极限、层裂强度、层裂片厚度以及塑性应变率等动力学参数。对回收的样品进行了断口分析和金相分析,从宏微观角度分析了无钴合金在不同应变率下的断裂机制。利用LS-DYNA有限元程序对层裂现象进行了数值模拟,计算结果与实验结果基本吻合。     

混凝土材料的层裂特性

利用Hopkinson压杆作为实验设备,通过试件后面吸收杆上应变波形研究了混凝土材料的层裂特性。不同强度混凝土在不同加载率下的实验结果表明,混凝土层裂强度与其压缩强度以及加载速率有关,给出了层裂强度和压缩强度以及加载率之间关系的经验公式,并指出不同加载速度下混凝土裂纹扩展方式不同是层裂强度率效应的主要原因。加载压缩波损伤的影响、重复加载实验以及多次层裂的顺序都表明,损伤对混凝土的层裂过程有重要影响。     

Relationship between spall characteristics and the dimension of fractal fracture structures

The effect of the fractality of a fracture surface and spall contour on the characteristics [fracture time (strength) and spall strength] of the loaded material is studied. It is shown that an increase in the fractal dimensions of the spall contour leads to an increase in the material strength parameter in the tensile wave and spall strength, whereas an increase in the fractal dimension of the fracture surface leads to a decrease in the spall strength. As an example, the spall strength is calculated taking into account the fractality of the fracture surface for Sp. 28 steel.     

拉伸应变率对20钢层裂特性的影响

采用轻气炮加载技术和激光速度干涉(VISAR)测速技术相结合,对不同拉伸应变率条件下20钢的层裂特性进行了实验研究。通过改变飞片和样品的几何尺寸来调整拉伸应变率的大小,研究了拉伸应变率对20钢层裂强度的影响。实验的拉伸应变率的变化范围为104~106 s-1,最大拉伸应变率接近激光加载所能产生的拉伸应变率,相比激光加载,薄飞片技术容易保证一维应变条件。实验结果显示20钢的层裂特性明显依赖着拉伸应变率的大小,106 s-1条件下层裂强度比104 s-1时提高近70%。基于对数值计算结果的分析,讨论了影响层裂强度的主要外载荷因素。     

Polychromatic microdiffraction analysis of defect self-organization in shock deformed single crystals

A spatially resolved X-ray diffraction method – with a submicron 3D resolution together with SEM and OIM analysis are applied to understand the arrangements of voids, geometrically necessary dislocations and strain gradient distributions in samples of Al (1 2 3) and Cu (0 0 1) single crystals shocked to incipient spallation fracture. We describe how geometrically necessary dislocations and the effective strain gradient alter white beam Laue patterns of the shocked materials. Several distinct structural zones are observed at different depths under the impact surface. The density of geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs) is extremely high near the impact and back surface of the shock recovered crystals. The spall region is characterized by a large density of mesoscale voids and GNDs. The spall region is separated from the impact and back surfaces by compressed regions with high total dislocation density but lower GNDs density. Self-organization of shear bands is observed in the shock recovered Cu single crystal.     

纯钒在冲击加载下的动态拉伸断裂和弹性波衰减特性

利用平板撞击和激光干涉测速技术,实验研究了国产热等静压纯钒在压力5.2~9.0 GPa、拉伸应变率0.47×105~1.19×105 s-1冲击加载下的层裂特性。结果表明:国产热等静压纯钒具有较强的抗动态拉伸断裂能力,其层裂强度在4.0~5.3 GPa范围,明显高于相似加载条件下文献给出的熔炼钒结果,这主要与热等静压加工工艺下纯钒杂质含量更低、内缺陷更少有关;同时,纯钒层裂强度对冲击压力和拉伸应变率均比较敏感。此外,对弹塑性加载速度剖面的分析发现:在6 mm样品厚度范围,纯钒的弹性波幅值随样品厚度增大而减小,雨贡纽弹性极限随样品厚度的衰减规律较好地满足指数关系σ_HEL=3.246（h_s/h₀）-0.386,h₀为单位长度。     

Large-deformation properties of wheat dough in uni- and biaxial extension. Part I. Flour dough

Rheological and fracture properties of optimally mixed flour doughs from three wheat cultivars which perform differently in cereal products were studied in uniaxial and biaxial extension. Doughs were also tested in small angle sinusoidal oscillation. In accordance with previously published results the linear region was found to be very small. The rheological properties at small deformations hardly depended on the cultivar. A higher water content of the dough resulted in a lower value for the storage modulus and a slightly higher value for tan . For both uniaxial and biaxial extension a more than proportional increase in stress was found with increasing strain, a phenomenon called strain hardening. In uniaxial extension (i) stresses at a certain strain were higher and (ii) the stress was less dependent on the strain rate than in biaxial extension. This indicates that in elongational flow orientational effects are of large importance for the mechanical properties of flour dough. This conclusion is consistent with published data on birefringence of stretched gluten. Fracture stress and strain increased with increasing deformation rate. The observed time-dependency of fracture properties can best be explained by inefficient transport of energy to the crack tip. Presumably, this is caused by energy dissipation due to inhomogeneous deformation because of friction between structural elements, e.g. between dispersed particles and the network. Differences in the rheological properties at large deformations between the cultivars were observed with respect to (i) stress, (ii) strain hardening, (iii) strain rate dependency of the stress, (iv) fracture properties and (v) the stress difference between uniaxial and biaxial extension.     

Experimental investigation on fracture of viscoelastic materials under biaxial-stress fields

Fracture behavior of viscoelastic materials under various biaxial-stress fields was studied experimentally in a specially developed apparatus. The biaxial stresses were applied at various time rates of stress to study the effects of rate of loading on fracture behavior. Examination of experimental data indicated that a simple relationship could be established between octahedral shear stress and octahedral shear strain at fracture corresponding to various biaxial stresses. Finally, a criterion of failure based on the total strain energy at fracture was suggested. The strain energy at fracture predicted from the linear viscoelastic theory agrees reasonably well with that determined experimentally.     

Failure properties of a PBAN propellant in multiaxial stress fields

Experimental data have been obtained which duplicate the stress and strain field in a solid-propellant rocket-motor grain under pressurization. Development of a hollow ellipsoidal specimen has made possible the acquisition of these data. This test also allows a more thorough evaluation of the failure mechanism in multiaxial stress and strain fields. Failure data were obtained in the tensile-tensile-compressive (++?) stress and biaxial tensile-compressive (+?) strain octants by applying pressure to the internal surface of an ellipsoidal specimen. Data were obtained in the triaxial compressive (???) stress and biaxial tensile-compressive (+?) strain octants by simultaneous application of pressure to both internal and external surfaces of the ellipsoidal specimen and a gradual reduction of external pressure until failure. A stress analysis of the specimen is presented and data-reduction techniques are discussed. Data obtained with a hollow spherical specimen and with the newly developed hollow ellipsoidal specimen are compared. These data are obtained in the same stress and strain octants; however, the relative magnitudes of the parameters and, therefore, the positions within the stress and strain octants are different. This results in a change in the magnitudes of the failure parameter. Data from uniaxial specimens of the same propellant also are presented.     

Fracture behavior of explosively loaded spherical molded steel shells

Experimental and numerical works are made to study the fracture of explosively loaded spherical molded steel shells. The first series of experiments included three sawdust recovery shots to save fragments for examination. In this series, detonation was initiated from the center of the sphere. Results of the experiments show that two types of fractures are observed in spherical shells: radial and shear as in cylindrical shells. Spall fracture is also observed in spherical shells. To assist understanding of the experimental results, a computer simulation of expanding shells is performed to provide information on the stress, strain, strain rate and position of each element of the shell wall as a function of time after detonation. For t=7.5 μs after detonation, triaxial non-uniform strain prevails in the middle of the thickness of the wall. The peak of the stress equals to 6.5 GPa and exceeds the spall strength of carbon steel. In the second series of experiments, spall fracture is suppressed by displacing the point of detonation initiation from the center to periphery of HE charge.     

晶粒尺寸对高纯铝板材层裂特性的影响

采用不同热处理工艺制备了3种晶粒尺寸（60、100、500 μm）的高纯铝板材,利用平板撞击实验研究了其层裂行为。通过改变飞片击靶速度,在靶板中实现初始层裂状态和完全层裂状态。基于自由面速度时程曲线和微损伤演化及断口显微形貌分析,讨论了晶粒尺寸对高纯铝板材层裂特性的影响规律。实验结果显示:（1）晶粒尺寸对高纯铝板材层裂特性的影响强烈依赖于冲击加载应力幅值,在低应力条件下,层裂强度与晶粒尺寸之间表现出反Hall-Petch关系,而在高应力条件下,晶粒尺寸对层裂强度几乎没有影响;（2）随着晶粒尺寸的增大,靶板损伤区微孔洞的尺寸和分布范围均增大,但数量显著减少,在微孔洞周围还发现比较严重的晶粒细化现象;（3）随着晶粒尺寸的增大,层裂微观机制从韧性沿晶断裂向准脆性沿晶断裂转变,且在断口上观察到少量随机分布的小圆球,归因于微孔洞长大和聚集过程中严重塑性变形引起的热效应。     

Low-cycle fatigue of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in biaxial bending

The uniaxial and biaxial low-cycle-fatigue life of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in completely reversed bending is investigated. Uniaxial data is obtained from a cantilever specimen, and round and elliptical simply supported plate specimens are used for nominal strain biaxialities of 1∶1, 1∶075 and 1∶0.50 in the plane of the specimen. Experimental data is correlated on the basis of the total octahedral shearing strain range in which the dependent component strains are calculated using the “effective value” of Poisson's ratio for elastic-plastic loading. Good agreement is obtained oetween the uniaxial and biaxial data when the total octahedral shearing-strain range is plotted against the number of cycles to failure in logarithmic coordinates. Also, it is shown that, in anisotropic materials, the directional uniaxial and biaxial low-cycle properties can be predicted from fatigue properties in any one direction if the anisotropy of fracture ductility is known.     

钢纤维混凝土的层裂特征

利用大直径Hopkinson压杆作为实验设备,通过试件后面的吸收杆应变波形分析了钢纤维增强混凝土的层裂特征。实验结果表明,钢纤维混凝土的层裂强度与钢纤维含量、混凝土压缩强度以及加载速率有关,并给出了经验公式。和素混凝土相比,钢纤维混凝土具有更高的层裂强度和更好的阻止损伤演化和裂纹扩展的能力。高速摄影结果表明,钢纤维混凝土层裂时,层裂段的飞离是由于陷在层裂段中应力波的动量效应,而且在层裂段中不易出现再次层裂的现象。这些现象和相同加载条件下素混凝土的层裂破坏有明显差别,说明钢纤维可以很好地提高混凝土抗层裂能力,其结论对相关的数值模拟和防护工程设计有重要意义。     

混凝土一维应力层裂实验的全场DIC分析

基于74mm直径分离式Hopkinson杆(SHPB)实验平台进行了混凝土杆的一维应力层裂实验.采用超高速相机(采样频率:2 $\mu$s/frame)结合数字图像相关法(DIC),记录混凝土试件中的动态位移场实时变化情况,探讨了混凝土在拉伸断裂过程中的表面位移场及速度场演化规律.针对实验中出现的多重层裂现象,基于一维应力波传播理论,指出各个位置在发生层裂时,其最大拉应力均由透射压缩波与反射拉伸波叠加而成,各处层裂发生时均处于一维应力状态.并提出了根据层裂位置左右两点速度趋势变化判断层裂发生时刻的判据.该判据可以给出所有层裂的起裂时间,结合DIC分析直接给出了混凝土多重层裂应变.结果显示混凝土的拉伸强度具有明显的应变率效应,在30 s$^{-1}$的应变率下,其拉伸强度的动态增强因子(DIF)可以达到5.与传统的波叠加法和自由面速度回跳法相比,DIC全场分析法不受加载波形限制,可以精确给出每个层裂的位置和起裂时间,从而得到试件在高应变率加载下不同位置处的断裂应变、拉伸强度及相应应变率,提高了测量效率.      

饱和水泥试样被爆炸激波损伤破碎的尺度研究

利用水中爆炸冲击波使水泥试样损伤破坏,模拟爆炸采油时激波使岩石损伤开裂的现象。实验获得了适合本实验条件的激波峰压衰减规律pm8.2(W1/3/R)1.46,得知压碎区尺度为集中装药特征尺度的2～5倍、拉伸损伤区尺度为集中装药特征尺度的20～30倍,激波使水泥试样破碎、拉裂的能量占总能量的2%～7%。     

PROGRESSIVE FRACTURE MODELING OF THE FAILURE WAVE IN IMPACTED GLASS

The failure wave has been observed propagating in glass under impact loading since 1991. It is a continuous fracture zone which may be associated with the damage accumulation process during the propagation of shock waves. A progressive fracture model was proposed to describe the failure wave formation and propagation in shocked glass considering its heterogeneous meso-structures. The original and nucleated microcracks will expand along the pores and other defects with concomitant dilation when shock loading is below the Hugoniot Elastic Limit. The governing equation of the failure wave is characterized by inelastic bulk strain with material damage and fracture. And the inelastic bulk strain consists of dilatant strain from nucleation and expansion of microcracks and condensed strain from the collapse of the original pores. Numerical simulation of the free surface velocity was performed and found in good agreement with planar impact experiments on K9 glass at China Academy of Engineering Physics. And the longitudinal, lateral and shear stress histories upon the arrival of the failure wave were predicted, which present the diminished shear strength and lost spall strength in the failed layer.     

平面碰撞与强激光加载下金属铝的层裂行为

在轻气炮和神光Ⅱ强激光装置上开展了金属铝的层裂实验。针对激光打靶层裂实验中样品自由面速度剖面后期振荡容易丢失问题,改进靶设计,获得很好效果。利用轻气炮加载和强激光加载层裂实验应变率的显著差异,并通过数值模拟,讨论了在建立具有预测能力的理论建模中需要关注的损伤成核、演化与汇合问题中的材料特性与应变率相关特性因素。结果表明,对于我们以前建立的动态损伤与断裂模型,微孔洞成核的平均半径、阈值压力、成核速率相关参数以及微孔洞长大的阈值压力等具有材料特性属性,但微孔洞的表面能以及决定材料发生完全层裂的临界损伤度等具有明显的应变率效应。另外,分析还发现,虽然层裂强度具有明显的应变率效应,但是在样品层裂当地,样品由持续拉伸向收缩转变的临界行为,取决于一个很小的临界损伤,这个临界值很可能是材料常数,与应变率无关。     

Submicrosecond strength of ultrafine-grained materials

We present the results of measuring the strength properties of metals and alloys with face-centered cubic lattice (copper, aluminum), body-centered cubic structure (Armco iron, tantalum), hexagonal close-packed structure (titanium and titanium alloy BT6) in the original coarse-grained and submicrocrystalline state under shock-wave loading. The grain dimension of the materials under study was changed by intensive plastic deformation. The influence of the grain dimensions on the dynamic yield stress does not always agree with the data of low-rate test even in sign, which is interpreted in the framework of general laws of the strain rate influence on the metal and alloy flow stress. As the grain dimension decreases, there is an increase in the compression rate in the plastic shock wave, a small increase in the fracture strength (spall strength), and an increase in the spall fracture rate.     

Heterogeneous deformation and spall of an extruded tungsten alloy: plate impact experiments and crystal plasticity modeling

The role of microstructure in the dynamic deformation and fracture of a dual phase, polycrystalline tungsten alloy under high-rate impact loading is investigated via experiments and modeling. The material studied consists of pure tungsten crystals embedded in a ductile binder alloy comprised of tungsten, nickel, and iron. The tungsten crystals are elongated in a preferred direction of extrusion during processing. Plate impact tests were conducted on samples oriented either perpendicular or parallel to the extrusion direction. Spatially resolved interferometric data from these tests were used to extract wave propagation behavior and spall strength dependent upon position in the sample microstructure. Finite element simulations of impact and spall in digitally reproduced microstructural geometries were conducted in parallel with the experiments. Finite deformation crystal plasticity theory describes the behavior of the pure tungsten and binder phases, and a stress- and temperature-based cohesive zone model captures fracture at grain and phase boundaries in the microstructure. In results from both experiments and modeling, the grain orientations affect the free-surface velocity profile and spall behavior. Some aspects of distributions of free-surface velocity and spall strength among different microstructure configurations are qualitatively similar between experimental and numerical results, while others are not as a result of differing scales of resolution and modeling assumptions. Following a comparison of experimental and numerical results for different microstructures, intergranular fracture is identified as an important mechanism underlying the spall event.