Phased array focusing with guided waves in a viscoelastic coated hollow cylinder

Guided wave phased array focusing has shown many advantages in long-range pipeline inspection, such as, longer inspection distance, greater wave penetration power and higher detection resolution. Viscoelastic coatings applied to a large percentage of pipes for protection purposes created some challenges in terms of focusing feasibility and inspection ability. Previous studies were all based on bare pipe models. In this work, guided wave phased array focusing in viscoelastic coated pipes is studied for the first time. Work was carried out with both numerical and experimental methods. A three-dimensional finite element model was developed for quantitatively and systematically modeling guided waves in pipes with different viscoelastic materials. A method of transforming measured coating properties to finite element method inputs was created in order to create a physically based model of guided waves in coated pipes. Guided wave focusing possibilities in viscoelastic coated pipes and the effects from coatings were comprehensively studied afterwards. A comparison of focusing and nonfocusing inspections was also studied quantitatively in coated pipe showing that focusing increased the wave energy and consequently the inspection ability tremendously. This study provides an important base line and guidance for guided wave propagation and focusing in a real field pipeline under various coating and environmental conditions.     

Flaw localization using the reassigned spectrogram on laser-generated and detected Lamb modes

Rapid, accurate inspection of metallic plates using broadband guided waves has traditionally been limited by the multi-mode, highly dispersive nature of these waves; current practice typically restricts either the type of mode generated or detected, and/or its frequency range. The current study presents an effective alternative procedure by combining a novel digital signal processing technique, the reassigned spectrogram, with laser generated and detected Lamb waves. The reassigned spectrogram is used to characterize the modal and frequency content of a single ultrasonic signal as a function of time, enabling a procedure to locate flaws in an aluminum plate specimen.     

谱有限元模拟正交各向异性黏弹性材料中导波传播特性

研究了导波在正交各向异性黏弹性复合板中传播的色散特性、波结构及功率流密度。基于二维平面运动方程,采用谱有限元方法得到了导波色散的特征方程。分析了正交各向异性黏弹性板中各向异性和黏性对能量速度和波结构的影响,以及基底对导波功率流密度的影响。数值研究结果表明:导波沿纤维方向传播的能量速度大,材料的黏性对速度影响较小,但会减小波结构的幅度;在高频时,基底的存在使两个基本模态的功率流密度分别集中到波导的上下表面,形成弱色散、高衰减及无色散、零衰减的表面波。数值模拟结果为导波用于复合材料定量无损检测和性能评价提供理论依据。      

Mode perturbation method for optimal guided wave mode and frequency selection

With a thorough understanding of guided wave mechanics, researchers can predict which guided wave modes will have a high probability of success in a particular nondestructive evaluation application. However, work continues to find optimal mode and frequency selection for a given application. This “optimal” mode could give the highest sensitivity to defects or the greatest penetration power, increasing inspection efficiency. Since material properties used for modeling work may be estimates, in many cases guided wave mode and frequency selection can be adjusted for increased inspection efficiency in the field. In this paper, a novel mode and frequency perturbation method is described and used to identify optimal mode points based on quantifiable wave characteristics. The technique uses an ultrasonic phased array comb transducer to sweep in phase velocity and frequency space. It is demonstrated using guided interface waves for bond evaluation. After searching nearby mode points, an optimal mode and frequency can be selected which has the highest sensitivity to a defect, or gives the greatest penetration power. The optimal mode choice for a given application depends on the requirements of the inspection.     

Reflection and transmission coefficients for guided waves reflected by defects in viscoelastic material plates

The paper presents a Fourier transform-based signal processing procedure for quantifying the reflection and transmission coefficients and mode conversion of guided waves diffracted by defects in plates made of viscoelastic materials. The case of the S(0) Lamb wave mode incident on a notch in a Perspex plate is considered. The procedure is applied to numerical data produced by a finite element code that simulates the propagation of attenuated guided modes and their diffraction by the notch, including mode conversion. Its validity and precision are checked by the way of the energy balance computation and by comparison with results obtained using an orthogonality relation-based processing method.     

Detection of cracks at rivet holes using guided waves

Guided Lamb waves can be used for a fast inspection of large areas, e.g. the detection of cracks at rivet holes in the fuselage of airplanes. When the guided wave hits a discontinuity like a hole, a typical scattered displacement field is obtained. A change of the scattered field indicates the development of a crack. In the experiments, the first anti-symmetric mode A0 of Lamb waves in plates is excited selectively by means of a piezoelectric transducer. The used frequency range is below the cut-off frequencies of higher wave modes. The scattered field around undamaged and damaged holes is measured on a grid around the hole with a heterodyne laser interferometer. Two types of damage are introduced: a notch cut with a very fine saw blade, and a fatigue grown crack. A significant change in the scattered field due to the defect is seen. Good agreement of the experimental results with theoretical calculations is obtained. The wave propagation is studied using Mindlin's theory of plates. The scattered field is calculated analytically and using finite difference methods (FDMs).     

谱有限元数值分析各向异性复合板中导波色散特性

提出谱有限元方法研究层状各向异性复合板中导波的色散特性和波结构。基于三维弹性动力学方程,用有限元方法离散波导截面,波传播方向的位移用简谐波表示,得到了导波色散的特征方程。分析了单层和双层复合板中导波沿不同方向传播的色散特性和波结构,讨论了双层复合板中层厚比对相速度的影响。数值研究结果表明:导波的对称模态沿纤维方向传播时在较宽的频率范围内保持弱色散状态。双层复合板中导波基本模态的相速度在低频时受层厚比的影响较明显,随着频率的增加趋向于相速度较低的材料。数值模拟结果为导波用于复合材料定量无损检测和性能评价提供理论依据。      

接触缺陷的振动调制超声导波检测技术研究

针对常规线性超声检测方法无法实现板结构接触类缺陷(如微裂纹、脱粘等)检测问题,将超声导波技术与振动声调制技术相结合,利用稀疏分布传感器发展了一种板结构中接触缺陷非线性超声检测方法。通过低频振动改变缺陷的接触状况,使得通过接触面的高频导波信号的相位和幅值受到调制。对受低频振动调制的超声导波二维时间序列进行时频分析,由于接触类缺陷的存在,在振动调制超声导波序列的时频分布上出现明显的低频振动频率分量。利用提取出的低频振动频率下的超声导波信号,进行了结构接触缺陷成像处理。检测试验表明,基于振动声调制的超声导波缺陷成像方法可以实现结构中的接触类缺陷检测。      

Hidden corrosion detection in aircraft aluminum structures using laser ultrasonics and wavelet transform signal analysis

Preliminary results of hidden corrosion detection in aircraft aluminum structures using a noncontact laser based ultrasonic technique are presented. A short laser pulse focused to a line spot is used as a broadband source of ultrasonic guided waves in an aluminum 2024 sample cut from an aircraft structure and prepared with artificially corroded circular areas on its back surface. The out of plane surface displacements produced by the propagating ultrasonic waves were detected with a heterodyne Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Time-frequency analysis of the signals using a continuous wavelet transform allowed the identification of the generated Lamb modes by comparison with the calculated dispersion curves. The presence of back surface corrosion was detected by noting the loss of the S(1) mode near its cutoff frequency. This method is applicable to fast scanning inspection techniques and it is particularly suited for early corrosion detection.     

Corrosion and erosion monitoring in plates and pipes using constant group velocity Lamb wave inspection

Recent improvements in tomographic reconstruction techniques generated a renewed interest in short-range ultrasonic guided wave inspection for real-time monitoring of internal corrosion and erosion in pipes and other plate-like structures. Emerging evidence suggests that in most cases the fundamental asymmetric A₀ mode holds a distinct advantage over the earlier market leader fundamental symmetric S₀ mode. Most existing A₀ mode inspections operate at relatively low inspection frequencies where the mode is highly dispersive therefore very sensitive to variations in wall thickness. This paper examines the potential advantages of increasing the inspection frequency to the so-called constant group velocity (CGV) point where the group velocity remains essentially constant over a wide range of wall thickness variation, but the phase velocity is still dispersive enough to allow accurate wall thickness assessment from phase angle measurements. This paper shows that in the CGV region the crucial issue of temperature correction becomes especially simple, which is particularly beneficial when higher-order helical modes are also exploited for tomography. One disadvantage of working at such relatively high inspection frequency is that, as the slower A₀ mode becomes faster and less dispersive, the competing faster S₀ mode becomes slower and more dispersive. At higher inspection frequencies these modes cannot be separated any longer based on their vibration polarization only, which is mostly tangential for the S₀ mode while mostly normal for the A₀ at low frequencies, as the two modes become more similar as the frequency increases. Therefore, we propose a novel method for suppressing the unwanted S₀ mode based on the Poisson effect of the material by optimizing the angle of inclination of the equivalent transduction force of the Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs) used for generation and detection purposes.     

Study on energy attenuation of ultrasonic guided waves going through girth welds

Ultrasonic guided wave is introduced as a new non-destructive long range pipe inspection method. It can be used to inspect pipe which is inaccessible to other conventional NDT methods, and rapid, long distance inspection can be achieved. An investigation of the guided ultrasonic waves traveling along pipe with special geometry characteristics, such as elbow, several girth welds, and some artificial defects is described. In this paper, factors that may cause attenuation of ultrasonic guided waves are discussed and energy attenuation of longitudinal and torsional guided waves is studied on an experimental pipe having seven girth welds. Good agreement has been obtained between the experiments and the predictions. In the end, the detection sensitivity and locating precision of two guided waves, namely longitudinal and torsional, were compared on defects, such as notch, burr and branch.     

Vibro-modulation and Guided wave techniques for contact defect detection in plate

A nonlinear acoustic technique for detection of contact defects in plates was developed associating guided waves with vibro-modulation techniques.The low frequency vibration varies the interface area within the contact defect;then the amplitude and phase of high frequency guided waves reflected from the contact defect will be modulated.Due to the exiting of contact defects,there was obvious low frequency component in the time-frequency distribution of modulated guided wave series.Furthermore the nonlinear responses at frequency of vibration were extracted out and used for defect imaging.It was shown that the nonlinear guided wave imaging method based on vibration modulation can effectively characterize and locate the nonlinear contact defects.     

Guided waves propagating in sandwich structures made of anisotropic,viscoelastic, composite materials

The propagation of Lamb-like waves in sandwich plates made of anisotropic and viscoelastic material layers is studied. A semi-analytical model is described and used for predicting the dispersion curves (phase velocity, energy velocity, and complex wave-number) and the through-thickness distribution fields (displacement, stress, and energy flow). Guided modes propagating along a test-sandwich plate are shown to be quite different than classical Lamb modes, because this structure does not have the mirror symmetry, contrary to most of composite material plates. Moreover, the viscoelastic material properties imply complex roots of the dispersion equation to be found that lead to connections between some of the dispersion curves, meaning that some of the modes get coupled together. Gradual variation from zero to nominal values of the imaginary parts of the viscoelastic moduli shows that the mode coupling depends on the level of material viscoelasticity, except for one particular case where this phenomenon exists whether the medium is viscoelastic or not. The model is used to quantify the sensitivity of both the dispersion curves and the through-thickness mode shapes to the level of material viscoelasticity, and to physically explain the mode-coupling phenomenon. Finite element software is also used to confirm results obtained for the purely elastic structure. Finally, experiments are made using ultrasonic, air-coupled transducers for generating and detecting guided modes in the test-sandwich structure. The mode-coupling phenomenon is then confirmed, and the potential of the air-coupled system for developing single-sided, contactless, NDT applications of such structures is discussed.     

Research on the propagation of guided waves in multi-layered plates

The dispersion characteristics and excitation mechanisms of the guided waves in multilayered plates are studied in this paper. Firstly, the dispersion equation is obtained by the propagator matrix method. Then, the bisection technique is employed to find all the roots of the dispersion equation. The dispersion characteristics of the guided waves are investigated and analyzed. For the multilayered plates in which the S-wave velocity increases or decreases from top to bottom, it is found that the velocity limits in high frequency of the first and high modes are equal to the Rayleigh wave and S-wave velocities of the low-velocity layer, respectively. It is also found that the velocity limits in the high frequency of all modes are equal to the S-wave velocity of the low-velocity layer for the plate with a low-velocity middle layer. The normal displacement spectrum of all the modes excited by the normal force source with a definite width on the surface of the plate is also investigated. It is proved that the dominant mode is the first mode when the S-wave velocity increases from top to bottom layer and the dominant mode is different in different frequency range for the plate with a low-velocity middle layer.     

Finite element simulation of the generation and detection by air-coupled transducers of guided waves in viscoelastic and anisotropic materials

The measured characteristics (efficiency and sensitivity) of two air-coupled transducers allow for the prediction of the absolute values of the pressure of the bulk waves generated in air and for the measurement of the pressure of the field radiated in air by guided waves propagating in a structure. With finite element software, the pressure field generated by an air-coupled transducer is simulated by introducing a right-hand side member in the Helmholtz equation, which is used for computing the propagation from the transducer to a plate. The simulated source is rotated in order to impose an angle of incidence with respect to the normal of the plate and generate the corresponding guided mode. Inside the plate, the propagation is simulated with the dynamic equations of equilibrium and a complex stiffness tensor to take into account the viscoelastic anisotropy of the material. For modeling the three-dimensional fields of the guided modes propagating in a two-dimensional non-symmetry plane, a 2.5 dimensional model is introduced. The model computes the value of the pressure field radiated in air by the plates for any guided modes and can predict the detectability of the system for a known defect in a structure. A test bed incorporating two air-coupled transducers is used to generate and receive various guided modes. Two plates made of Perspex and carbon-epoxy composite are tested. The pressure measured by the receiver at various positions is compared to the results of the model to validate it.     

Guided wave propagation in single and double layer hollow cylinders embedded in infinite media

Millions of miles of pipes are being used for the transportation, distribution, and local use of petroleum products, gas, water, and chemicals. Most of the pipes are buried in soil, leading to the significance of the study on the subject of guided wave propagation in pipes with soil influence. Previous investigations of ultrasonic guided wave propagation in an elastic hollow cylinder and in an elastic hollow cylinder coated with a viscoelastic material have led to the development of inspection techniques for bare and coated pipes. However, the lack of investigation on guided wave propagation in hollow cylinders embedded in infinite media like soil has hindered the development of pipe inspection methods. Therefore the influence of infinite media on wave propagation is explored in this paper. Dispersion curves and wave structures of both axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric wave modes are developed. Due to the importance of the convergence of numerical calculations, the requirements of thickness and element number of the finite soil layer between hollow cylinder and infinite element layer are discussed, and an optimal combination is obtained in this paper. Wave structures are used for the mode identification in the non-monotonic region caused by the viscoelastic properties of coating and infinite media.     

Guided waves in a monopile of an offshore wind turbine

We study the guided waves in a structure which consists of two overlapping steel plates, with the overlapping section grouted. This geometry is often encountered in support structures of large industrial offshore constructions, such as wind turbine monopiles. It has been recognized for some time that the guided wave technology offers distinctive advantages for the ultrasonic inspections and health monitoring of structures of this extent. It is demonstrated that there exist advantageous operational regimes of ultrasonic transducers guaranteeing a good inspection range, even when the structures are totally submerged in water, which is a consideration when the wind turbines are deployed off shore.     

分层固体板中导波的激发与频散特性

针对无限大弹性分层固体板,研究了结构中导波的频散和激发特性。首先使用传递矩阵法推导分层板模型中导波的频散方程,然后用二分法求取导波各模式的频散曲线,进而分析结构中导波的频散特性。结果表明:在速度递增或递减的分层板中,基阶模式和高阶模式的高频极限分别等于低速层的瑞利波速和横波波速。对于含低速夹层的分层板,所有模式的高频极限都等于低速层的横波速度。在导波激发特性方面,研究了在具有一定宽度的法向力源作用下的分层板中导波各模式在结构中的法向位移谱。发现在速度递增的分层板结构中基阶模式是主导模式,而对于速度递减和含低速夹层模型,主导模式在不同的频段范围内对应不同的导波模式。      

Guided circumferential waves in orthotropic cylindrical curved plate and the mode conversion by the end-reflection

In ultrasonic nondestructive inspection of large-diameter pipes and curved plate, longitudinal cracks are detected more efficiently by using guided circumferential waves. In the present, the study of guided circumferential waves and their application in detecting longitudinal defect were relative adequate when pipe material is isotropic. Based on linear three-dimensional elasticity, an orthogonal polynomial series expansions approach is used for determining the guided circumferential waves dispersion curves in homogeneous infinitely long orthotropic hollow cylinders. Results are compared with those published earlier and with the finite element simulation to check up the accuracy and range of applicability of this polynomial approach. Through the analysis of the displacements distributions and finite element simulation, the mode conversion of guided circumferential waves by end-reflection in cylindrical curved plate is discovered.     

不锈钢折弯板裂纹Lamb波检测技术

金属弯板广泛应用于车辆、船舶、飞机等大型装备结构件中,折弯处易形成应力集中产生裂纹,直接影响构件的使用安全和寿命.该文开展了不锈钢弯板裂纹缺陷Lamb波检测技术研究,计算了钢板的频散曲线,优选3种不同频率的S0模态:0.25 MHz、0.5 MHz、1 MHz.利用COMSOL仿真软件建立频域仿真模型,模拟了Lamb波...