Acoustical classification of woods for string instruments

Two basic types of wood are used to make stringed musical instruments: woods for soundboards (top plates) and those for frame boards (back and side plates). A new way to classify the acoustical properties of woods and clearly separate these two groups is proposed in this paper. The transmission parameter (product of propagation speed and Q value of the longitudinal wave along the wood grain) and the antivibration parameter (wood density divided by the propagation speed along the wood grain) are introduced in the proposed classification scheme. Two regression lines, drawn for traditional woods, show the distinctly different functions required by soundboards and frame boards. These regression lines can serve as a reference to select the best substitute woods when traditional woods are not available. Moreover, some peculiarities of Japanese string instruments, which are made clear by comparing woods used for them with woods used for Western and Chinese instruments, are briefly discussed.     

Wood typification by Venturi easy ambient sonic spray ionization mass spectrometry: the case of the endangered Mahogany tree

Venturi easy ambient sonic spray ionization mass spectrometry in both its liquid (V(L) -EASI-MS) and solid sample modes (V(S) -EASI-MS) is shown to provide nearly immediate and secure typification of woods, as demonstrated for Mahogany, an endangered and most valuable type of tropical wood. This reddish wood displays unique phytochemical markers (phragmalin-type limonoids) which are rapidly detected from the wood surface by V(S) -EASI-MS or from a simple methanol extract of a tiny wood chip by V(L) -EASI-MS. Unique profiles were obtained for Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) whereas genuine samples of six other similar types of woods, which are commonly falsified by artificial coloring and commercialized as Mahogany, display also typical but dissimilar pythochemical profiles as compared to that of the authentic wood. Variable and atypical chemical profiles were observed for artificially colored woods. Secure chemical characterization via V(S) -EASI-MS or V(s) -EASI-MS fingerprints of Mahogany and other types of woods with similar appearance should help to control the illegal logging and trade of this and other endangered woods and their falsification, and to create certified standards.     

Generation of transversal envelope soliton in polymeric and wooden rods

This paper is concerned with the probing of the transversal envelope solitons propagation in circular waveguides when a set of requirements (non-linearity and dispersion) are fulfilled in the waveguide and balanced. The basic idea is to analyze the shape of an acoustic pulse after it has traveled one or few trips through samples constituted of a rod and two ended beads. The dispersive behavior is associated to the bounded medium (rod) and the contacts between the elements of the specimens are assumed being described by non-linear Hertz’ law type. The experimental data are obviously material dependent and have pointed out the existence of common properties on the formation and propagation properties of the envelope solitons whatever is the material (polymers, carbon fibers and wood) of the rods and spheres. Peculiar behaviors were also observed for specific material (woods) probably caused by the anisotropy of this kind of rod material leading to a double envelope soliton.     

黏弹性材料的动态力学特性及其对覆盖层吸声性能的影响

本文利用标准化动态力学测量手段获得了某种高分子聚合物的动态杨氏模量,并根据时温等效原理对动态杨氏模量与声学测量在频段上的差异加以分析和转换,得到了500—7500 Hz频率范围内该黏弹性材料杨氏模量随频率变化的特性.基于所测得动态杨氏模量,采用有限元方法分析了均匀黏弹材料的吸声性能,并将仿真结果与样品声管实验数据进行对比,验证了测试所得参数的准确性.进一步仿真分析了含有局域共振结构的声学覆盖层吸声性能,并讨论了黏弹性材料的动态特性对其吸声性能的影响,提出了改进水声覆盖层低频宽带吸声特性的建议.     

基于贝叶斯神经网络的近红外光谱实木地板表面缺陷检测

实木地板的表面缺陷直接影响其力学性能和产品等级,表面缺陷的快速检测对实木地板的在线分选具有重要的现实意义。针对视觉方法检测实木地板表面缺陷识别率低的问题,提出了一种基于近红外光谱分析技术的检测方法。首先,分别采集规格为200 mm×100 mm×20 mm的表面带有活节、死节以及无缺陷的实木地板的光谱数据各60份,其中30份作为训练样本,30份作为测试样本;其次,使用高斯滤波(GSF)、分段多元散射校正(PMSC)和去趋势法(DT)等方法对采集到的光谱数据进行预处理,降低光谱噪声、消除光谱的散射影响;然后,利用改进遗传算法从处理后的光谱中提取特征波长用于构建缺陷识别与分类模型;最后,使用基于贝叶斯理论改进的神经网络构建实木地板缺陷识别和分类模型。实验使用含有活节、死节以及无缺陷的实木地板样本对模型进行训练和测试,结果表明：通过贝叶斯神经网络构建的缺陷识别与分类模型能够准确识别活节、死节和无缺陷三类实木地板,识别率分别为92.20%, 94.47%和95.57%。证明了实木地板表面缺陷类型与其近红外吸收光谱密切相关,并为下一步实现实木地板表面缺陷的准确定位提供快速检测方法。     

A mixed method for measuring low-frequency acoustic properties of macromolecular materials

A mixed method for measuring low-frequency acoustic properties of macromolecular materials is presented. The dynamic mechanical parameters of materials are first measured by using Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Apparatus(DMTA) at low frequencies, usually less than 100 Hz; then based on the Principles of Time-Temperature Superposition (TTS), these parameters are extended to the frequency range that acousticians are concerned about, usually from hundreds to thousands of hertz; finally the extended dynamic mechanical parameters are transformed into acoustic parameters with the help of acoustic measurement and inverse analysis. To test the feasibility and accuracy, we measure a kind of rubber sample in DMTA and acquire the basic acoustic parameters of the sample by using this method. While applying the basic parameters to calculating characteristics of the sample in acoustic pipe, a reasonable agreement of sound absorption coefficients is obtained between the calculations and measurements in the acoustic pipe.     

Elasticity and inelasticity of biomorphic carbon,silicon carbide,and SiC/Si composite produced on the basis of medium density fiberboard

The amplitude and temperature dependences of the Young’s modulus and the internal friction (ultrasonic absorption) of biomorphic carbon, silicon carbide, and SiC/Si composite produced from medium density fiberboard (MDF) by pyrolysis (carbonization), followed by infiltration of molten silicon into the prepared carbon preform have been studied in the temperature range 100–293 K in air and under vacuum. The measurements have been performed by the acoustic resonance method with the use of a composite vibrator for longitudinal vibrations at frequencies of approximately 100 kHz. The data obtained by acoustic measurements of the amplitude dependences of the elastic modulus have been used for evaluating the microplastic properties of samples under study. It has been shown that the Young’s modulus, the decrement of elastic vibrations, and the conventional microyield strength of the MDF samples differ from the corresponding data for previously studied similar materials produced from natural eucalyptus, beech, sapele, and pine woods. In particular, the desorption of environmental molecules at small amplitudes of vibrations, which is typical of biomorphic materials based on natural wood, is almost absent for the MDF samples. The results obtained have been explained by different structures and the influence of pores and other defects, which, to a large extent, determine the mechanical characteristics of the biomaterials under investigation.     

基于太赫兹时域光谱技术的红木分类识别

提出了一种利用太赫兹时域光谱技术（THz-TDS）进行红木分类识别方法。红木价格昂贵,同时由于种类繁多难以识别,导致红木市场以次充好,以假乱真的现象层出不穷,严重扰乱了市场秩序,给生产者和消费者造成巨大的经济损失,传统的红木分类识别方法难以兼顾准确性和快速性,因此需要研究一种新的方法对现有木材分类识别方法进行补充和发展。相比于传统方法,太赫兹波对红木具有良好的穿透性及指纹特性,在红木的分类识别中有较大的应用潜力。选用5种红木（巴里黄檀、奥氏黄檀、大叶紫檀、小叶紫檀、交趾黄檀）作为试验样品木材。利用THz-TDS系统得到木材的太赫兹时域光谱,通过对五种木材的太赫兹时域光谱进行快速傅里叶变换,得到木材太赫兹频域光谱,并对太赫兹时域光谱提取光学参数,分别得到木材的太赫兹折射率谱和吸收系数谱,结果表明不同种类的木材在时域光谱上具有时间延迟线与振幅的差异,在频域光谱上显示衰减趋势及幅值各不相同,在吸收系数谱中各种类红木吸收峰出现的频段不同,能够直观地展示出各种类木材之间的区别,表明THz-TDS进行红木分类识别具有一定的可行性。利用连续投影算法（SPA）提取吸收系数谱和折射率谱的特征频率,对吸收系数谱260个频率点筛选出28个特征频率点,频段占比10.77%;对折射率谱260个频率点筛选出12个特征频率点,频段占比4.62%。分别建立基于吸收系数谱和折射率谱的随机森林分类模型和支持向量机（SVM）红木分类模型,并对各模型分类结果进行对比。实验结果表明,THz-TDS具有良好的木材识别效果,基于木材太赫兹吸收系数谱和折射率谱建立的随机森林分类模型对红木种类有着较好的分类性能,总体分类准确率分别达到了94%和96%,能够准确对红木种类进行分类识别。利用太赫兹时域光谱技术实现了红木的分类识别,为红木的分类识别提供了一个新的思路和技术方案,能够作为近红外光谱木材检测方法的补充,同时为太赫兹技术在木材分类识别领域的应用提供了理论基础。     

Effect of Wood Flour on the Curing Behavior,Mechanical Properties,and Water Absorption of Natural Rubber/Wood Flour Composites

The preparation of natural rubber/wood flour (NR/WF) composites and the influence of WF content, modification, and particle size on the vulcanizing behavior, mechanical properties, and water absorption of NR/WF composites are described. Results show that the addition of WF into NR delayed the scorching time and vulcanizing time of NR. The appropriate WF contents can improve the mechanical properties of NR. However, the overloading of WF destroys the mechanical properties of NR. The addition of WF increased the water absorption of NR. The silicone couple agents that were used to modify the WF had little effect on the water absorption of NR/WF composites. Decreasing the WF particle size enhanced the water absorption of NR/WF composites because the water-absorbing surface area increased with decreasing WF particle size. The water absorption of sisal-fiber-filled NR-based composites was larger than that of the WF-filled NR-based composites. A useful equation, w=ktⁿ , was inferred from the water absorption results to calculate the water absorption (w) of the NR/WF composites as a function of time (t), where k was a constant concerning the compounds’ character that was primarily determined by the WF's character and n was the power of time that was related to the NR's inherent character, such as cross-linking density, and primarily determined the water absorption rate.     

Anatomical descriptions of silicified woods from Madagascar and Indonesia by scanning electron microscopy

Fine structure and tissue substitution by minerals were investigated in silicified woods from Madagascar and Indonesia by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. The silicified woods maintained the exterior morphology of once grown trees and showed typical inner structures of conifers. Radial planes of the silicified wood from Madagascar revealed tracheids as a major component of the axial system in the secondary xylem. Tracheids were mainly characterized by numerous bordered pits where a thickening in the middle (torus) was surrounded with the membrane (margo). The torus appeared to contrast with the fibrillar network of the margo. As a component of the axial system in the secondary phloem, sieve elements were found to have many sieve pores that were filled with seemingly crystalline materials. To correlate the colors of the silicified wood from Indonesia with elemental composition, energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry was employed in this study. Silicon was present as a basic component of the silicified wood. Calcium and iron were detected from red-colored regions, whereas magnesium was found in blue-colored regions. These results suggest that tissues of silicified woods had been substituted by minerals over the past period, while retaining the inherent morphology of the tree species. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis could be applied to unravel structural details and composition of plant fossils in palaeobotany.     

红外光谱和热重分析法评估三种加固剂对“小白礁Ⅰ号”考古木材微力学性能的影响

随着社会对木质文物重视程度的提高和现代考古技术的进步,饱水木质文物得到不断发掘和保护。饱水木质文物木材的细胞形态和化学结构普遍发生非均匀降解或变化,成为了不同于健康木材的“新材料”。PEG法和糖法作为国际通用的脱水加固方法可避免饱水木质文物干燥过程中收缩变形。本研究选用“小白礁Ⅰ号”沉船主要用材树种柚木（Tectona sp.）为试验对象,分别使用PEG、三氯蔗糖和海藻糖加固,并在开发的适用于脆弱木质文物的非包埋式纳米压痕样品制备方法的基础上,通过纳米压痕力学技术（NI）评估了三种饱水木质文物常用加固处理方法对考古木材微力学性能的影响;同时,结合红外光谱法（FTIR）和热重分析（TGA）方法,进一步揭示了加固剂种类影响考古木材微力学性能的原因。研究结果表明：使用非包埋法制备的纳米压痕样品,可准确获取加固处理后考古木材细胞壁的纵向弹性模量和硬度;PEG法、三氯蔗糖法和海藻糖法均可显著提高考古木材木纤维细胞壁的纵向弹性模量和硬度,三种方法加固处理后的木材的弹性模量比未处理样品分别增加了6.9%,25.4%和29.1%,硬度比未处理样品分别增加了9.3%,25.9%和13.6%。红外光谱试验结果表明PEG、三氯蔗糖和海藻糖均进入了考古木材细胞腔等内部组织结构,热重分析结果证实部分加固剂进入了木材细胞壁,是细胞壁强度提高的主要原因。总之,三氯蔗糖和海藻糖较适用于饱水考古木材的脱水加固,加固效果优于PEG,其中三氯蔗糖的加固效果最佳。研究结果为饱水木质文物加固性能的准确评估提供了方法参考,为沉船等饱水木质文物的加固与保护提供了科学依据。     

Resin–Sisal and Wood Flour Composites Made from Unsaturated Polyester Thermosets

Short fibers and wood flour were selected as fillers in the production of two types of unsaturated polyester composites (bisphenolic and isophthalic-based thermosets). Sisal fibers were subjected to washing in order to remove the organic coating on the fibers (which were originally prepared for cord manufacture) and to maleic anhydride (MAN) esterification. The effect of these treatments on the thermomechanical properties of the composites, as well as on the mechanical properties (flexural and compression) and water absorption was investigated. All the results are coincident in showing the improved interfacial adhesion obtained by washing and mainly by esterification of the fibers. Additionally, hybrid wood flour sisal composites were prepared and their mechanical properties compared to those of the one-filler composites. The hybrid composites showed improved modulus and maximum stress.     

化学镀铜天然高分子材料表面特征的近红外光谱分析

通过对天然高分子材料木材进行化学镀的方法制成的木质电磁屏蔽材料既可以保留木材的一些优良特性,又能有效改善木材导电、 导热和电磁屏蔽性,不仅为木材的增值利用开辟了新道路,还为电磁屏蔽材料的加工利用拓宽了领域。本研究利用近红外光谱结合主成分分析法对化学镀铜处理前后样品进行了分析研究,旨在探讨利用近红外光谱技术研究该材料表面特性的可行性。结果表明：(1)化学镀铜前后样品表面的近红外光谱在形状和吸收强度上存在显著差异,而不同镀铜时间的样品之间也存在差异,尤其是反应未充分的样品。(2)经过主成分分析后,镀铜前后样品沿PC1轴、 PC2轴大致分成了6类,其中未处理样品、 活化处理样品性质较接近,镀铜时间25和40 min样品因反应充分,性质也比较类似,说明近红外光谱中包含反映材料处理前后的重要特征信息。(3)比较近红外区域和可见光区域光谱的主成分分析效果,发现近红外光谱区比可见光光谱区对镀铜处理前后样品的分类效果好,可见光光谱在突出样品的表面颜色特征信息方面表现更好,这说明两者结合运用更有利于样品表面特征信息的表征。     

基于X射线剖面密度仪和FTIR快速测定两种实木地板材的物理化学性能

实木地板作为一种天然环保的地面铺装材料,得到越来越多消费者的选择,需求量日益剧增,而如何快速了解和检测木材材性一直是地板选材和质量检测急需解决的问题。采用了X射线剖面密度仪和傅里叶红外光谱仪(FTIR)两种快速检测技术,对市场上常用的进口地板材番龙眼和香二翅豆的剖面密度和化学主要组成成分进行了快速测定;同时采用直接测量法测量了木材的基本密度值,并将两种地板材快速测定密度值与实测密度值进行了相关性分析。剖面密度分析结果表明,香二翅豆的平均密度高于番龙眼的平均密度,两种地板材质地均匀性都很好;相关性数据表明番龙眼与香二翅豆两种地板材剖面密度的平均值与其基本密度值都具有很好的相关性,拟合后的相关系数达到了0.983和0.981,所有样品的两种密度的相关系数为0.991;傅里叶红外光谱分析结果表明香二翅豆的抽提物含量要高于番龙眼,香二翅豆木质素的特征峰I_{1 507}/I_{1 425},I_{1 507}/I_{1 740}的高度比值高于番龙眼的,而纤维素的特征峰I₈₉₅/I_{1 425},I₈₉₅/I_{1 507}高度比值低于番龙眼的,表明香二翅豆的木质素含量高于番龙眼,纤维素含量低于番龙眼。由此可见,X射线剖面密度仪可以快速检测出木材的质地均匀性以及预测木材基本密度值,而FTIR可以快速检测木材化学组分相对含量的高低,两种方法结合可以对实木地板材以及其他木材的物理化学性能进行快速检测。     

Acoustical properties of wood in string instruments soundboards and tuned idiophones: biological and cultural diversity

The acoustical properties of wood for instruments have mostly been studied on a few archetypal woods in Western musical instruments. The objective of this paper is to extend knowledge on the diversity in wood properties and uses in instruments from different geo-cultural areas. A wide set of data has been collected on vibrational properties of 452 species, through experiments and literature survey. Property distributions within broad categories confirm the known characteristics of softwoods, but also evidence specificities of tropical hardwoods compared to temperate-zone species. A relational database has been created to link wood properties and uses in musical instruments of the world. Two case studies on acoustically important functions in different geo-cultural areas show contrasted trends: (i) species used for xylophone bars and slit-drums in different continents all share a very low internal friction, (ii) on the contrary, the only characteristic common to soundboards' woods is a lower than average density, whereas their acoustical properties differ widely between them and with the "Western" standard in wood choice. All these materials being nevertheless adapted to their context, cultural specificities in the structure, playing mode and "sonority" preferences should also be taken into account.     

Influence of Ethylene-Butyl Acrylate-Glycidyl Methacrylate Terpolymer on Compatibility of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Copolymer/Olive Husk Flour Composites

The paper reports some results of an experimental study on ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer/olive husk flour (OHF) composites incorporated at various filler ratios (15, 30 and 45 wt%) in the absence and the presence of ethylene-butyl acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate (EBAGMA) terpolymer used as a compatibilizer. The composite samples have been prepared by melt blending and their chemical structure, as well as morphological, mechanical and water absorption properties investigated. It is shown that the compatibility of EVA/OHF composites is improved by the addition of EBAGMA terpolymer. Indeed, FT-IR analysis shows that chemical interactions have occurred between the compatibilizer and the base blend components. Morphological results from SEM shows better dispersion of the wood particles in the EVA matrix and the resulting composite samples exhibit better tensile properties at break and lower water absorption than the uncompatibilized ones. Moreover, the results indicate that the loading concentrations of both OHF and EBAGMA have an effect on the composite properties.     

Ultrasound-Assisted Surface-Modification of Wood Particulates for Improved Wood/Plastic Composites

The combined effects of alkali and ultrasound treatment of wood flour on the mechanical properties of polypropylene-based wood/plastic composites (WPCs) were examined. FT-IR measurements confirmed that the alkali treatment removed both hemicellulose and lignin from the wood, and there was an increase in the number of hydroxyl groups on the cellulose surface. This process was promoted by ultrasound treatment. Mechanical testing of injection-molded WPC samples revealed that alkali treatment improved both composite strength and modulus when polypropylene grafted with maleic acid was used as a coupling agent. The strength increase is due to improved adhesion between the fiber and matrix, while improved modulus is due to the removal of lignin and hemicellulose that are not as stiff as cellulose. Polarized optical microscopy showed the presence of well-defined polymer crystals on the surface of the modified wood, and this is also responsible for the improved mechanical properties. It is conclusively demonstrated that the combination of chemical treatment of wood and ultrasound assistance is more effective in improving the mechanical properties of the composites than the use of chemical treatment alone.     

Sound absorption characteristics of a high-temperature sintering porous ceramic material

This article is dedicated to sound absorption properties of porous zeolite with macropores, a ceramic material fabricated by high-temperature sintering. Acoustical properties of this ceramic material are studied by two analytical models, Delany–Bazley model and Johnson–Allard model, where the latter one shows a better fit to the experimental results. Moreover increasing the thickness of samples would improve the sound absorption in the low frequency ranges. Raising the porosity could increase the highest sound absorption coefficient. The resonance frequencies of the materials with 3–5 mm particles are more obvious. Comparing with glass wool, porous zeolite has a better sound absorption.     

XPS和FTIR分析仿生呼吸法对硅酸盐改性杉木浸渍效果的影响

杉木进行硅酸盐浸渍改性处理后,木材内部的改性剂相关元素含量与分布是衡量浸渍效果的重要指标,对改性杉木的各项物理力学性能有着至关重要的作用。以硅酸盐为浸渍改性剂,采用仿生呼吸法对杉木进行浸渍改性。研究了仿生呼吸法对硅酸盐改性杉木的密度、抗弯强度、抗压强度、三切面硬度和24 h吸水率影响,利用XPS和FTIR分析了杉木素材与改性材的化学成份与化学结构,并对硅酸盐改性剂在改性杉木中的分布深度与分布规律进行了探讨。结果表明：经过硅酸盐浸渍改性后,改性杉木平均密度大于0.721 g·cm-3,抗弯强度和抗压强度分别增大了170.19%和286.64%。改性杉木横切面、径切面和弦切面的硬度均有不同程度的提高。硅酸盐改性使杉木的24 h吸水率从91.17%±2.51%降至39.23%±1.62%,表明杉木的尺寸稳定性大幅度提高。相比于杉木素材,改性杉木木材的XPS全谱扫描中出现了Na元素和Si元素的吸收峰,窄扫谱图中出现了Si-O-C和Na-O化学结构。同时,改性杉木木材的FTIR谱图中出现了Si-O-Si的吸收峰,并且游离羟基含量减少,缔合羟基增多。XPS和FTIR分析都表明硅酸盐浸注到了杉木木材的孔隙中,且硅酸钠与杉木木材中羟基形成了化学键结合和氢键结合。这也是改性杉木的力学性能和耐水性能提高的重要原因。另外,通过XPS测试发现改性杉木木材沿横向从表面到30 mm处都出现了C,O,Na和Si元素,并且沿横向从表面到30 mm处,Si-O-C结合结构的吸收峰强度基本相同,说明从表面到中间部位,硅酸钠与杉木木材中的羟基都较均匀地形成了化学键。对各元素进行定量分析发现,改性杉木木材中C,O,Na和Si元素的相对含量从表面到中间部位（30 mm）差异较小,进一步表明改性剂能较好浸入杉木木材中间,并且均匀性较好。研究结果将为杉木浸渍改性效果提供数据支撑,并为优化改性工艺与方法、进一步提高改性杉木的物理力学性能提供依据。