Understanding problem structuring methods interventions

This article presents a conceptual framework and methodological guide for researching and understanding OR interventions particularly problem structuring methods (PSM). The article argues that OR/PSM interventions are complex events which can not be understood by traditional approaches alone. In this paper an alternative methodology is developed, where the units of analysis are the narratives and networks produced during PSM interventions. The paper outlines the main theoretical and methodological concerns that need to be appreciated in studying PSM interventions. The paper then explores actor-network theory and narrative analysis as approaches to study them. A case study describing the use of these approaches is provided.     

Assessing the impact of problem structuring methods in multi-organizational settings: an empirical investigation

Problem structuring methods (PSMs) have most commonly been employed with groups operating within single-organizational contexts. This paper argues that PSMs are by their nature also appropriate for supporting the work of multi-organizational groups (MOGs) operating within a partnership context. An experience of the use of a PSM in this context is reported and evaluated. The research findings suggest that there is indeed scope for the use of PSMs with MOGs, and that these methods do appear to have a positive role in achieving some of the products claimed for PSM interventions. In particular, the experience as a whole tends to demonstrate that mutual accommodations between the organizations represented in the MOG can be the result of the use of PSMs. The paper concludes with a discussion of the significance of the experience, and proposes some directions for further research.     

The uses of observation: combining problem structuring methods and ethnography

In this paper, we examine conceptual and practical aspects of carrying out cross-disciplinary, multi-method, interventions that bring together methods from operational research (OR) with ethnographic tools drawn from sociology and anthropology. We note that such methodological hybridization is not a new development, although historically, the role of ethnography in OR has not always been explicit in written accounts. We illustrate such usage by means of a number of concrete examples. We then describe recent work in which we have successfully combined problem structuring methods with ethnographic investigations in order to address disparate problem issues.     

Past,present and future of problem structuring methods

To be able to exploit the future opportunities for Operational Research (OR), we need to prepare for them now. To conceptualize alternative futures for OR, we need to understand the potentialities of the present. To understand the present, we need to have a grasp of the past history that gave us the OR that we have, rather than some other analytic practice. OR was thrown up by a situation where traditional management methods were proving inadequate to handle the growing complexity of organizational arrangements. Problem structuring methods (PSMs) in turn were generated out of a sense that the trajectory of OR had led it away from important areas of social decision-making. PSMs have made great strides but are still encountering barriers to acceptance. This paper will explore the factors that presently constrain PSMs, and what developments could take them into new fields.     

On becoming expert in the use of problem structuring methods

While much has been written about the theory and practice of using problem structuring methods (PSMs) there is little formal discussion of how individuals may effectively learn about their use. In this paper it is argued that a foundation for designing and providing a suitable learning environment lies in understanding the nature of being an expert user of PSMs and the knowledge that such experts hold and deploy. An analysis of how knowledge and expertise are grounded in the work involved in using PSMs is offered. This leads to some proposals for what is required if processes to support the acquisition of expertise in the use of PSMs are to be implemented.     

Towards a new framework for evaluating systemic problem structuring methods

Operational researchers and social scientists often make significant claims for the value of systemic problem structuring and other participative methods. However, when they present evidence to support these claims, it is usually based on single case studies of intervention. There have been very few attempts at evaluating across methods and across interventions undertaken by different people. This is because, in any local intervention, contextual factors, the skills of the researcher and the purposes being pursued by stakeholders affect the perceived success or failure of a method. The use of standard criteria for comparing methods is therefore made problematic by the need to consider what is unique in each intervention. So, is it possible to develop a single evaluation approach that can support both locally meaningful evaluations and longer-term comparisons between methods? This paper outlines a methodological framework for the evaluation of systemic problem structuring methods that seeks to do just this.     

Forms of conversation and problem structuring methods: a conceptual development

Problem structuring methods (PSMs) are a family of participatory and interactive methods whose purpose is to assist groups of diverse composition tackle a complex problematic situation of common interest. This is achieved through modelling and facilitation, with a view to generating consensus on problem structure, and agreement on initial commitments. Despite the apparent success of PSMs reported in the literature, little progress has been made towards the development of theoretical models that integrate these experiences and guide PSM practitioners and academics in developing and implementing effective PSM interventions. In particular, no theoretical models have been presented concerning how conversational processes within a group are affected by PSMs. This paper develops a theoretical model of conversation intended to provide a means to identify a specific role for the analytical assistance provided through PSMs, and for evaluating their effectiveness. The hypothesis articulated from this model is that PSMs have the potential to improve the quality of the conversation in which actors participate. PSMs generate this effect through facilitating the structuring and sense-making activities embedded within a conversation. Improvement in the quality of conversation should tend to help actors engage in dialogue as a particular form of conversation, achieve shared understanding, and increase the actors’ ownership of the commitments achieved during the conversation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the model for research and practice.     

The non-codified use of problem structuring methods and the need for a generic constitutive definition

When we use a PSM what is it we are actually doing? An answer to this question would enable the PSM community to considerably enlarge the available source of case studies by the inclusion of examples of non-codified PSM use. We start from Checkland’s own proposal for a “constitutive definition” of SSM, which originated from trying to answer the question of knowing when a claim of SSM use was legitimate. By extending this idea to a generic constitutive definition for all PSMs leads us to propose a self-consistent labelling schema for observed phenomena arising from PSMs in action. This consists of a set of testable propositions, which, through observation of putative PSM use, can be used to assess validity of claims of PSM use. Such evidential support for the propositions as may be found in putative PSM use can then make it back into a broader axiomatic formulation of PSMs through the use of a set-theoretic approach, which enables our method to scale to large data sets. The theoretical underpinning to our work is in causal realism and middle range theory. We illustrate our approach through the analysis of three case studies drawn from engineering organisations, a rich source of possible non-codified PSM use. The combination of a method for judging cases of non-codified PSM use, sound theoretical underpinning, and scalability to large data sets, we believe leads to a demystification of PSMs and should encourage their wider use.     

Beyond problem structuring methods: reinventing the future of OR/MS

Some of the most influential pioneers of OR felt disappointed by the way it developed in the 1960s and 1970s. In their view, the original intention to create a holistic, interdisciplinary science addressed to strategic problems was betrayed. Problem structuring methods (PSMs) have made a significant contribution to taking OR/MS forward again in the direction charted by those pioneers. From a theoretical perspective, however, it is clear that the opportunities provided by PSMs tend to be limited to those drawn from the interpretive paradigm. That is only one way of adding to the positivist/quantitative approach of classical OR/MS. This paper suggests that OR has an obligation to explore a wider range of theoretical options and to convert the possibilities offered by all of these into a form that managers and management scientists can use. Only in this way can OR be reinvented to live up to the ambitions of its founders.     

Using Foucault to analyse ethics in the practice of problem structuring methods

As a new generation of problem-structuring methods (PSM) develops in operational research (OR) practice, the issue of ethics needs attention. This paper aims to contribute to examining ethics in the practice of problem structuring. The paper argues that PSM could influence ethical reflection but the scope of new developments is limited, as it is also the scope of ethical codes or norms in OR. Ethics needs to be understood as a continuous development by individuals in relation to existing frameworks and codes. This view of ethics is inspired by Michel Foucault's ideas on power and ethics. Using Foucault's ideas, two main areas of inquiry are suggested to enhance critical reflection about ethics: (a) individualization of forms of ethics, and (b) possibilities and constraints of ethics in power relations. Using these two areas, practitioners reflect on the ethics of their practice and relate it to their own ethical development.     

A survey of contingency factors affecting the validation of end-user spreadsheet-based decision support systems

Decision support systems have become widespread in recent years. However, most of these systems are not carefully validated and this has led in some cases to serious errors. One of the principal reasons for the lack of validity is the lack of an operationalised validation methodology. A simplified validity framework has already been developed by the authors as the first part of a 3-phase approach towards devising a practical validation methodology. This paper describes the second phase, reporting as it does on a survey that has been undertaken to unearth the contingency factors that influence how the process of validation, employing the validity framework, will be carried out for a particular kind of decision support system—one involving a spreadsheet model.     

Quantitative problem structuring methods for multi-actor problems: an analysis of reported applications

Problem structuring methods (PSMs) are proposed as vital tools for coping with complex and unstructured problems that help decision-makers make decisions or come to a shared understanding of a problem situation. Despite their popularity, choosing a PSM for an unstructured problem situation is problematic as good categorization and evaluation of PSMs is lacking. As a first step we postulate a categorization of quantitative PSMs applied to multi-actor situations. We list the different application areas, the types of design that were used, and the type of outcomes the methods provide. To understand why and how certain PSMs are applied, we categorize applications of metagames/conflict analysis, hypergames, drama theory, Q-methodology, and transactional analysis. We find that method choice and validation of the applications are yet underdeveloped for this specific sub-field, and suggest further work on this as it will help to understand the added value of PSMs.     

Exploring new directions for research in problem structuring methods: on the role of cognitive style

Prior research has argued that cognitive style can have a significant impact on group decision making. In addition, several scholars have proposed that cognitive style can play a key role in the design and use of group decision support systems. However, cognitive style has not received a great deal of attention in the problem structuring methods (PSMs) community. This is surprising, given that PSMs are specifically developed to support a group in their decision making. The purpose of this paper is thus to examine the significance of cognitive style within PSMs. The paper identifies and explores the role of four different cognitive style functions in problem structuring interventions. This analysis is carried out by focusing on the different tasks embedded within a group process supported by PSMs. Implications for the research and practice of PSMs are then discussed.     

Combining problem structuring methods to conduct applied research: a mixed methods approach to studying fitness-to-drive in the UK

This paper describes a mixed methods approach using problem structuring methods to conduct applied research into fitness-to-drive arrangements within the UK Department for Transport. Computer-supported group causal mapping was used to collect and structure qualitative data from stakeholder groups concerning the delivery of medical standards on fitness-to-drive. The data were subsequently coded and analysed using the modelling language of soft systems methodology. This enabled data to be linked to the concept of a ‘fitness-to-drive system’ and developed further in the form of systems models based on alternative worldviews. The paper reports on the process of developing and implementing the approach and discusses issues concerning the conduct of mixed methods research using problem structuring methods.     

A problem structuring method for ecosystem-based management: The DPSIR modelling process

The purpose of this paper is to learn from Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) theory to inform the development of Problem Structuring Methods (PSMs) both in general and in the specific context of marine management. The focus on marine management is important because it is concerned with a CAS (formed through the interconnection between natural systems, designed systems and social systems) which exemplifies their particularly ‘wicked’ nature. Recognition of this compels us to take seriously the need to develop tools for knowledge elicitation and structuring which meet the demands of CAS. In marine management, chief among those tools is the DPSIR (Drivers – Pressures – State Changes – Impacts – Responses) model and, although widely applied, the extent to which it is appropriate for dealing with the demands of a CAS is questionable. Such questioning is particularly pertinent in the context of the marine environment where there is a need to not only recognise a broad range of stakeholders (a question of boundary critique) but also to manage competing knowledge (economic, local and scientific) and value claims. Hence this paper emphasises how a CAS perspective might add impetus to the development of a critical perspective on DPSIR and PSM theory and practice to promote a more systemic view of decision-making and policy development.     

WASAN: The development of a facilitated methodology for structuring a waste minimisation problem

This paper contributes a new methodology called Waste And Source-matter ANalyses (WASAN) which supports a group in building agreeable actions for safely minimising avoidable waste. WASAN integrates influences from the Operational Research (OR) methodologies/philosophies of Problem Structuring Methods, Systems Thinking, simulation modelling and sensitivity analysis as well as industry approaches of Waste Management Hierarchy, Hazard Operability (HAZOP) Studies and As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP). The paper shows how these influences are compiled into facilitative structures that support managers in developing recommendations on how to reduce avoidable waste production. WASAN is being designed as Health and Safety Executive Guidance on what constitutes good decision making practice for the companies that manage nuclear sites. In this paper we report and reflect on its use in two soft OR/problem structuring workshops conducted on radioactive waste in the nuclear industry.     

The Dirichlet problem by variational methods

Let ^N be a bounded open set and C( ). Assume that has an extensionC() such that H^–1().Then by the Riesz representation theorem there exists a unique

We show that u+ coincides with the Perron solutionof the Dirichlet problem

This extends recent results by Hildebrandt [Math. Nachr. 278(2005), 141–144] and Simader [Math. Nachr. 279 (2006),415–430], and also gives a possible answer to Hadamard'sobjection against Dirichlet's principle.