Reference Electrode for Ionic Liquids

Reference electrodes for room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL) applications were constructed that have a known and reproducible potential versus the ferrocene/ferrocenium couple. They are based on reference electrodes of the first kind, Ag/Ag⁺ couple type, or of the second kind, based on Ag/AgCl in M⁺Cl^?. The former uses AgNO₃ salt and the latter tetrabutylammonium chloride, Bu₄NCl, dissolved in acetonitrile which are then introduced to the ionic liquid of choice for a final concentration of 0.1 M. The reference electrodes can be easily and reproducibly constructed. An ionic contact of these reference systems with the test electrolyte was made using an asbestos fiber liquid junction. The internal compartment of the reference system was filled with the same ionic liquid as used for the electrochemical experiment. The performance of these reference electrodes was tested in selected ionic liquids using the ferrocene/ferrocenium redox couple. The stability, reproducibility, and temperature behavior of the two reference systems have been characterized in the following ionic liquids: 1‐butyl‐3‐methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BMIBF₄), 1‐butyl‐3‐methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (BMI(CF₃SO₂)₂N), and 1‐butyl‐3‐methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BMIPF₆). It has been found that the formal potentials of the examined reference systems are stable over several days. There is a linear relationship for the temperature studied in the range from 25 to 60 °C.     

Kinetics of the Decomposition of Ferrocenium Ion and Its Derivatives

The first-order kinetics of the decomposition of ferrocenium ion (Fc⁺) and its substitution derivatives have been studied in aqueous sulfuric acid and in the presence of excess Ce(IV) ion. The observed first-order rate constant (k_obs) is expressed as k_obs = k_d for the acyl-substituted ferrocenium ions and k_obs = k_d+ k_ox[Ce(IV)]_o for the unsubstituted and alkyl-substituted ferrocenium ions. Electron-donating alkyl substituents stabilize the ferrocenium ion whereas electron-withdrawing acyl substituents make it less stable. The order of relative stability toward decomposition is 1,1′-dimethyl Fc⁺ ≥ butyl Fc⁺ > 1,1-dimethylpropyl Fc⁺ > Fc⁺ > > formyl Fc⁺ > acetyl Fc⁺ > > benzoyl Fc⁺. A mechanism to interpret the kinetics is also given.     

Cyclic voltammetry at microelectrodes in the absence of added electrolyte using a platinum quasi-reference electrode

The cyclic voltammetric behaviour of the ferrocene/ferricinium (Fc/Fc⁺) couple has been examined in acetonitrile without deliberately added electrolyte using scan rates over the range 5 mV/s to 50 V/s. Platinum (0.5 μm, 2.5 μm and 25 μm radius) and gold (5 μm radius) microelectrodes were used as working electrodes, with platinum wire quasi-reference electrodes to minimize contamination. At slow scan rates (5 to 500 mV/s) sigmoidal shaped steady state voltammograms were generally observed on the forward (oxidative) scan as is the case with electrolyte. Reverse (reductive) scans were not strictly sigmoidal and exhibited small peaks. This phenomenon is not observed in the presence of electrolyte and is attributed to ionic migration of the Fc⁺ cation. With a two electrode configuration, employing a platinum wire quasi-reference electrode, the forward and reverse scans of cyclic voltammograms were not superimposed at low scan rates unless small radii and low ferrocene concentrations are used. This distortion may be attributed to polarization of the reference electrode. Use of a three electrode platinum configuration, in a potentiostatic model while increasing the noise level, decreases this problem. At fast scan rates in excess of 1 V/s, planar diffusion terms are apparent. Additionally, iR (ohmic) distortions are considerable and are enhanced as the electrode radius and ferrocene concentration increase. Despite this problem, which mitigates against obtaining reliable thermodynamic data or assessment of electrochemical reversibility, the important diagnostic criterion of the presence of chemical reversibility or otherwise of an electrode process can still be clearly ascertained at fast scan rates, since the reduction current arising from the presence of the Fc⁺ ion in the reverse scan is observed, as is the case in the presence of electrolyte.     

Artificial photosynthesis by using chloroplasts from spinach adsorbed on a nanocrystalline TiO2 electrode for photovoltaic conversion

Photovoltaic conversion has been achieved by use of chloroplasts (photosynthetic organs) from spinach adsorbed on a nanocrystalline TiO₂ film on an indium tin oxide (ITO) glass electrode (chloroplast/TiO₂ electrode). The shape of the absorption spectrum of the chloroplast/TiO₂ electrode is almost the same that of a dispersion of the chloroplasts. Absorption maxima of the chloroplast/TiO₂ electrode observed at 430, 475, and 670 nm were attributed to carotenoid and chlorophyll molecules, suggesting that chloroplasts have been adsorbed by the nanocrystalline TiO₂ film on the ITO electrode. The photocurrent responses of chloroplast/TiO₂ electrodes were measured by using a solution of 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate in acetonitrile as redox electrolyte in the presence or absence of water and 100 mW cm^?2 irradiation. The photocurrent of the chloroplast/TiO₂ electrode was increased by adding water to the redox electrolyte. The photocurrent responses of chloroplast/TiO₂ electrodes irradiated with monochromatic light (680 nm, the absorption band of photosystem II complexed with evolved oxygen) were measured by use of a solution of 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate in acetonitrile as redox electrolyte in the presence or absence of water. A chloroplast/TiO₂ electrode photocurrent was observed only when the redox electrolyte containing water was used, indicating that the oxygen evolved from water by photosystem II in chloroplasts adsorbed by a nanocrystalline TiO₂ film on an ITO electrode irradiated at 680 nm is reduced to water by the catalytic activity of the platinum electrode. The maximum incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE) was 0.8 % on irradiation at 670 nm.     

Electrical Conductances of Tetrabutylammonium and Decamethylferrocenium Hexafluorophosphate in Organic Solvents

The electrical conductances of tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate in acetone and of decamethylferrocenium hexafluorophosphate in acetone, acetonitrile 1,2-dichloroethane, and dichloromethane have been measured at 25^°C. The Walden product of the Bu₄N⁺ cation and the PF₆^- anion in acetone and other solvents is discussed in relation to the dielectric friction. The electric conductance at infinite dilution and the association constant of decamethylferrocenium hexafluorophosphate were determined in the four solvents investigated. The association constant of this electrolyte increases with decreasing reduced temperature, as expected in the framework of the association theory, within the primitive model of electrolytes.     

Peculiarities of copper underpotential deposition and nucleation on polycrystalline platinum in the presence of acetonitrile: Rotating ring-disk electrode

The initial stages of copper electrocrystallization on polycrystalline platinum in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ + 10 mM CuSO₄ + 0–200 mM acetonitrile (AcN) solutions are studied by the methods of cyclic voltammetry and potentiostatic current transients on a ring-disk electrode. Adsorbed AcN molecules accelerate both the underpotential deposition and the bulk deposition of copper due to the local electrostatic effects on the charged interface. With the increase in the additive concentration in solution, the contribution of the production of copper ions Cu⁺ is observed to increase due to the formation of Cu(AcN) _x ⁺ comlexes, particularly, for [AcN] ≥ 4 mM when the concentrations of acetonitrile and copper sulfate become comparable. In the presence of AcN, as well as in the copper sulfate supporting electrolyte, the adatomic layer is formed via the mechanism of the two-dimensional growth of Cu(1 × 1) phase islets.     

Electroinitiated cationic polymerization of styrene by direct electron transfer

We have studied by cyclic voltammetry the mechanisms of electron transfer and peak potentials of eleven alkenes, propylene oxide, propylene sulfide, and carbon disulfide. We have also studied the cationic polymerization of styrene in acetonitrile solution initiated by controlled potential electrolysis at the anodic peak potential of styrene. The electrolyte used was tetrabutylammonium fluoborate, which was not electroactive at the electrolysis potential, and the reference electrode was a Ag⁰/Ag⁺ electrode. The electrochemical studies show that direct electron transfer from styrene is the initiation steps. Plots of reacted monomer concentrations versus time are sigmoidal curves. The propagation rate constant was found from a kinetic relationship based on an autocatalytic reaction. The activation energy is 15.6 kcal/mole at 20°C. The current behavior and effect of stirring on polymerization rate suggest that the growth of polymer takes place partially on the electrode surface.     

Microliter Volume Determination of Cosmetic Mercury with a Partially Crosslinked Poly(4‐vinylpyridine) Modified Screen‐Printed Three‐Electrode Portable Assembly

We successfully demonstrated microliter (μL) volume determination of Mercury (Hg) using an in‐built screen‐printed three electrodes containing partially crosslinked poly(4‐vinlylpyridine) (designated as pcPVP) modified carbon‐working, carbon‐counter, and Ag⁺‐quasireference electrodes (SPE/pcPVP) in a pH 4 acetate buffer solution with 2 M KCl by using the square wave anodic stripping voltammetric (SWASV) technique. Instrumental and solution phase conditions were systematically optimized. Experiments were carried out by simply placing a 500 μL‐droplet of Hg containing real sample mixed with the base electrolyte on the SPE/pcPVP surface. The SPE/Ag⁺ quasi‐reference system shifted the Hg‐SWASV detection potential ca. 250 mV positive, but the quantitative current values were appreciably similar to that of a standard Ag/AgCl reference electrode. Under optimal condition, the calibration graph is linear in the window of 100–1000 ppb of the Hg droplet system with a detection limit of 69.5 ppb (S/N=3). Finally real sample assays were demonstrated for prohibited cosmetic Hg containing skin‐lightening agents in parallel with ICP‐OES measurements.     

Synthesis of a Neutral Mixed‐Valence Diferrocenyl Carborane for Molecular Quantum‐Dot Cellular Automata Applications

The preparation of 7‐Fc⁺‐8‐Fc‐7,8‐nido‐[C₂B₉H₁₀]^? (Fc⁺FcC₂B₉^?) demonstrates the successful incorporation of a carborane cage as an internal counteranion bridging between ferrocene and ferrocenium units. This neutral mixed‐valence Fe^II/Fe^III complex overcomes the proximal electronic bias imposed by external counterions, a practical limitation in the use of molecular switches. A combination of UV/Vis‐NIR spectroscopic and TD‐DFT computational studies indicate that electron transfer within Fc⁺FcC₂B₉^? is achieved through a bridge‐mediated mechanism. This electronic framework therefore provides the possibility of an all‐neutral null state, a key requirement for the implementation of quantum‐dot cellular automata (QCA) molecular computing. The adhesion, ordering, and characterization of Fc⁺FcC₂B₉^? on Au(111) has been observed by scanning tunneling microscopy.     

Nonenzymatic amperometric organic peroxide sensor based on nano-cobalt phthalocyanine loaded functionalized graphene film

An enzyme-free amperometric method was established for the electrochemical reduction tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP) on the utilization of nano-cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) loaded functionalized graphene (FGR) and to create a highly responsive organic peroxide sensor. FGR was synthesized with a simple and fast method of electrolysis with potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF₆) solution as electrolyte under the static current of 0.2 A. In the present work, FGR was dispersed in the solution of CoPc to fabricate chemical modified electrode to detect TBHP. The electro-reduction of TBHP can be catalyzed by FGR–CoPc, which has an excellent electrocatalytical activity due to the synergistic effect of the FGR with CoPc. The sensor can be applied to the quantification of TBHP with a linear range covering from 0.0260 to 4.81 mM, a high sensitivity of 13.64 A M⁻¹, and a low detection limit of 5 μM. This proposed sensor was designed as a simple, robust, and cheap analytical device for the determination of TBHP in body lotion.     

Formation of negative oxidation states of platinum and gold in redox ionic liquid: Electrochemical evidence

The electrochemical reduction of noble metal electrodes in the presence of redox ionic liquid, 1-ferrocenylethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, [FcEMIM][TFSI], was investigated by cyclic voltammetry. Our experiments suggest the formation of metal with negative oxidation states, in the cases of platinum and gold electrodes [M_n⁻, FcEMIM⁺]. By analogy with the previous work, the formation of these phases is concomitant with the insertion of the supporting electrolyte; which correspond in our experimental condition to the redox cation of the ionic liquid. As an exciting result, the electrochemical investigations of the reduced electrode in electrolytic solution, containing solvent and supporting electrolyte, evidence the presence of the ferrocene groups at the electrode surface. Moreover, the reduced electrode exhibits the presence of the ferrocene even after, contact with air, after ultrasound, and after physical polishing, highlighting the large stability of this organo-metallic phases formed in this media. The AFM investigations demonstrate the morphological change of the platinum surface after the reduction process. Finally, our works bring a formal electrochemical proof of the presence of the ionic liquid cation inside the electrode material after the cathodic treatment in this media.     

The Electrochemistry of Tetraphenyl Porphyrin Iron(III) Within Immobilized Droplets Supported on Platinum Electrodes

For the first time, the voltammetry of an ensemble of immobilized benzonitrile microdroplets containing 5,10,15,20‐tetraphenyl‐21H,23H‐porphine iron (III) chloride, TPPFeCl immobilized at platinum electrodes immersed in various aqueous electrolytes has been explored. The reduction of TPPFeCl was observed with the voltammetric response seen to be highly dependent on the nature of ions in the surrounding aqueous phase. Unlike voltammetry in purely homogeneous solution the nature of the aqueous electrolyte can influence the voltammetry in the droplet phase. The electrochemical reduction of TPPFeCl contained within tetrabutylammonium chloride (TBACl) supported benzonitrile (PhCN) microdroplets immersed into an aqueous solution of TBACl was first studied. During TPPFeCl reduction the resulting [TPPFeCl]^? species is stabilized due to the excess of chloride anions inside the oil droplet. Voltammograms of homogeneous solutions of PhCN supported with TBACl show similar chemically reversible process which is also attributed to the stable [TPPFeCl]^? species. This anion stabilization was not observed when the oil droplets were supported with tetrabutylammonium perchlorate (TBAP) or when the PhCN solution bathing the microdroplet ensemble was supported with TBAP resulting in a chemically irreversible process. The voltammetry of unsupported droplets immobilized on a platinum electrode immersed in different aqueous electrolytes was also explored and the fate of the [TPPFeCl]^? species formed considered during the reduction sweep. Similarities and difference to voltammetry in purely homogeneous media are noted and the use of droplet voltammetry provides complimentary information.     

Radical Dimerization of 5,5′-Diphenyl-3,3′,4,4′-tetramethoxy-2,2′-bipyrrole: π Dimer in the Crystal, σ Dimer in Solution.

The crystalline, spinless π dimer ( 1 ^.+⋅PF₆)₂ was obtained by the oxidation of bipyrrole 1 with ferrocenium hexafluorophosphate. The diamagnetic species generated electrochemically in solution was identified as the σ dimer by NMR spectroscopy.     

Electrochemical behavior of [UO_2Cl_4]~(2-) in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium based ionic liquids

In order to examine the chemical form of uranyl species in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium(EMI) based ionic liquids,UV-visible absorption spectra of solutions prepared by dissolving [EMI] 2 [UO2Cl4] into a mixture of EMICl and EMIBF 4(50:50 mol%) were measured.As a result,it was confirmed that uranyl species in the mixture of EMICl and EMIBF 4 existed as [UO2Cl4]2-.Cyclic voltammograms(CVs) of [UO2Cl4]2-in the mixture were measured at 25 ℃ using a Pt working electrode,a Pt wire counter electrode,and an Ag/Ag + reference electrode(0.01 M AgNO 3,0.1 M tetrabutylammonium perchlorate in acetonitrile) in a glove box under an Ar atmosphere.Peaks corresponding to one redox couple were observed around-1.05 V(Epc) and-0.92 V(Epa) vs.ferrocene/ferrocenium ion(Fc/Fc +).The potential differences between two peaks(Ep) increased from 101 to 152 mV with an increase in the scan rate from 50 to 300 mV s-1,while the(Epc+Epa)/2 value was constant,-0.989 V vs.Fc/Fc + regardless of the scan rate.Furthermore,the diffusion coefficient of [UO2Cl4]2-and the standard rate constant were estimated to be 3.7 × 10-8 cm 2 s-1 and(2.7-2.8) × 10-4 cm s-1 at 25 oC.By using the diffusion coefficient and the standard rate constant,the simulation of CVs was performed based on the reaction,[UO2Cl4]2-+ e = [UO2Cl4]3-.The simulated CVs were found to be consistent with the experimental ones.From these results,it is concluded that [UO2Cl4]2-in the mixture of EMICl and EMIBF 4 is reduced to [UO2Cl4]3-quasi-reversibly at-0.989 V vs.Fc/Fc +.     

Electrochemistry in supercritical trifluoromethane

The use of trifluoromethane (CHF₃) as a solvent for electrochemical studies in supercritical conditions is analyzed. The dielectric and electrical conductivity of supercritical CHF₃ was measured at 323.15 K at several densities. The solubility and electrical conductivity of tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF₆) and decamethylferrocenium hexafluorophosphate (Fe(Cp*)₂PF₆) in supercritical CHF₃ were measured at 323.15 K as a function of density. It was found that, in spite of the high ion pair formation of the TBAPF₆ in the supercritical solvent, this salt is a suitable supporting electrolyte, having a conductivity much higher than that reported for other electrolytes in low dielectric constant supercritical solvents. The limiting currents measured for decamethylferrocene (Fe(Cp*)₂) and decamethylferrocenium hexafluorophosphate (Fe(Cp*)₂PF₆) at a platinum microdisc in supercritical CHF₃ at several densities and 323.15 K, show the feasibility of using the proposed supercritical system as a model for electrochemical studies in variable density media. The effect of concentration of the supporting electrolyte on the limiting current at the microelectrode is qualitatively discussed in terms of a recent theory which takes into account the ion association of the supporting and electroactive electrolytes.     

Ferrocene as a Reference Redox Couple for Aprotic Ionic Liquids

The electrochemical behavior of ferrocene has been studied in a number of room temperature ionic liquids. Diffusion‐controlled, well‐defined anodic and cathodic peaks were found for the Fc/Fc⁺ (ferrocene/ferrocenium) oxidation/reduction on the gold electrode. Ohmic resistance R between working and auxiliary electrodes was deduced from impedance measurements. Cyclic voltammograms were corrected for the base line current as well as for the ohmic drop (IR). The formal potential 1/2(E_pa+E_pc) for ferrocene reduction/oxidation in aprotic ionic liquids tested is within a relatively narrow range and may be approximated by the value of 0.527±0.018 V (against the cryptate Ag/Ag⁺222 in acetonitrile reference). Ferrocene diffusion coefficients, calculated from the peak current dependence on the sweep rate, were of the order of 10^?7 cm² s^?1.     

Copper(II) ion sensor based on electropolymerized undoped conducting polymers

A solid state copper(II) ion sensor is reported based on the application of electropolymerized undoped (neutral) polycarbazole (PCz) and polyindole (PIn) modified electrodes. The new sensor shows high selectivity to Cu²⁺ ions with a detection limit of 10^–5 M. PCz and PIn are formed respectively by the anodic oxidation of 50 mM carbazole and 5 mM indole monomers in dichloromethane containing 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium perchlorate on a platinum electrode using a single compartment cell. Potentiostatic polymerization of both the monomers are carried out at 1.3 V and 1.0 V vs. Ag/AgCl, respectively. Perchlorate ions were electrochemically removed from the polymer films by applying – 0.2 V vs. Ag/AgCl. Polymer-coated electrodes are incubated in 1 M KCl solution for 8 h followed by incubation in distilled water for 2 h before using as a metal ion sensor. The undoped PCz and PIn electrodes were found to be highly selective and sensitive for Cu²⁺ ions with little selectivity for Pb²⁺ and negligible response towards Ag⁺, Hg²⁺, Cu⁺, Ni²⁺, Co²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺ or Zn²⁺. Potentiometric responses for Cu²⁺ ions are recorded for both the sensor electrodes together with a double-junction Ag/AgCl reference electrode. Calibration curves for Cu²⁺ are reported for both ion sensors. The polymer-modified electrodes were found to be stable for several weeks. Electronic Publication     

Derivatives of 1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene (dppf): Electrochemistry, complexation and the X-ray structures of 1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)osmocene (dppo) and [PdCl2(dppo)]

The oxidative electrochemistry of 1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)osmocene (dppo) and 1,1′-bis(diphenylarsino)ferrocene (dpaf) was studied in dichloromethane with tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate as the supporting electrolyte. The [MCl₂(P^∩P)] (M = Pd or Pt; P^∩P = dppo or 1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphinoindenyl)iron) complexes were prepared, studied electrochemically and the X-ray structures of dppo and [PdCl₂(dppo)] were determined.     

聚丁基噻吩的电化学合成及性能研究

丁基噻吩在硝基苯溶液中以六氟磷酸四丁基季铵盐为支持电解质，在恒电流条件下进行电化学氧化聚合，通过电导率的测量及可见──紫外光谱分析，讨论了单体浓度、电解质浓度、电流密度、聚合温度对聚合物膜的导电性能的影响。扫描电镜图表明，随着聚合的进行．膜的表面呈“菜花”状结构。循环伏安图表明聚了基噻吩与聚噻吩具有相近的氧化峰位。     

The role of cations in homogeneous succinoylation of mulberry wood cellulose in salt-containing solvents under mild conditions

The role of two cations [tetraethylammonium⁺ (TEA⁺) and tetrabutylammonium⁺ (TBA⁺)] in the homogeneous succinoylation of mulberry wood (MW) cellulose in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)/tetraethylammonium chloride (TEACl) and DMSO/tetrabutylammonium fluoride (TBAF) was investigated using the intrinsic viscosity and two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser effect NMR spectroscopy (2D NOESY). The intrinsic viscosity of MW cellulose solution strongly depends on the salt dosage for both TEACl and TBAF, indicating that the increase in the hydrodynamic size of cellulose chains was caused by the interactions between salts and cellulose, which promotes the solvation process of cellulose in solution. Two-dimensional NOESY spectra reveal that cations bind to cellobiose in DMSO by the interactions between α-methylene groups of TEA⁺ (or TBA⁺) and C1/C1′ groups of cellobiose, and the intensities of the respective crosspeaks increase with increasing TEACl dosage from 5 to 10 mg/ml, but no change was present with TBAF at the same concentration range. Taking cellobiose as a model compound for cellulose, it can be expected that TEA⁺ (or TBA⁺) and cellulose form polyelectrolyte-like complexes. The degree of substitution (DS) of homogeneous succinoylation of MW cellulose benefits from the interactions between TEA⁺ (or TBA⁺) and cellulose evidenced by FT-IR spectra and CP/MAS ¹³C NMR spectra. The DS of the succinylated cellulose declines at TBAF concentrations higher than 11 wt% probably because of the steric hindrance effects of TBA⁺.