利用自发布里渊散射测量液体声速

为了克服共振干涉法在液体的热力学声速和高频声速测量方面精度不高的问题, 本文建立了一种基于自发布里渊散射原理的测定液体声速的实验装置. 利用法布里-珀罗干涉仪对散射光进行扫描滤波, 数据采集卡结合光子计数器对散射光进行探测, 设计了一种散射光信息采集分析方法. 该实验方法有效的解决了传统布里渊散射方法中信号失真的问题, 显著地提升了液体声速测量精度. 对308.6–906.2 MHz内298.15 K饱和液相CCl₄声速进行了测量, 测量结果与文献值具有较好一致性. 利用法布里-珀罗干涉仪周期性扫描的滤波原理, 通过在测量得到的布里渊频移上加减整数倍个自由波谱区, 得到了更大频率的波谱信息, 进而设计一种测定介质高频声速的方法. 对CCl₄在5406.1–5521.0 MHz频段内的声速进行了测量. 实验结果显示, CCl₄的热力学声速随频率无明显变化, 而高频声速随频率的增大呈增大趋势且远大于热力学声速, 证实CCl₄具有色散现象.     

Nonlinear ultrasonic nature of organic liquid and organic liquid mixture

Based on Jacobson's molecular free length theory in liquids and the relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the molecular free length in organic liquids, this paper deduces the equations for pressure coefficient and temperature coefficient of ultrasonic velocity and nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A in both of organic liquid and organic liquid binary mixtures. These nonlinear acoustic parameters are evaluated against the measured results and data from other sources. The equations reveal the connections between the nonlinear acoustic parameters and some internal structural of the medium or mixtures e.g. the sizes of molecule, several thermodynamic physical parameters and outside status e.g. condition of pressure and temperature of the liquid or liquid mixture. With the equations the nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A of organic liquid binary mixtures, which is impossible to know without the nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A of the tow components before, can be calculated based on the structural and physical parameters of organic liquid and organic liquid binary mixtures.     

Experimental investigation on finite-amplitude standingwaves:Ⅰ. The properties of second harmonic

I.IntroductionInrecentyears,theresearchworkonnonlinearacousticshasbeendcvelopedrapid1ybe-causethehigh-intensitysoundismoreandmoreimportantincontcmporarytechnology.Aerodynamicnoiseemittedbyrockctorjetengines,noisetestofairframcs,u1trasonicpro-cessing,andothcrs,a1linvo1vefinitc-amplitudesoundwavesand,mostlystandingwaves.Athcoryofonc-dimensiona1finitc-amp1itudestandingwavesinlosslessmediahasbeenproposedbyMAAonthebasisofthcfundamenta1principlesofhydrodynamics['l,inwhichformulasofstcadywavcformsa…     

FDTD simulation of finite-amplitude pressure and temperature fields for biomedical ultrasound.

Full wave simulations provide a valuable tool for studying the spatial and temporal nature of an acoustic field. One method for producing such simulations is the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. This method uses discrete differences to approximate derivatives in the governing partial differential equations. We used the FDTD method to model the propagation of finite-amplitude sound in a homogeneous thermoviscous fluid. The calculated acoustic pressure field was then used to compute the transient temperature rise in the fluid; the heating results from absorption of acoustic energy by the fluid. As an example, the transient temperature field was calculated in biological tissue in response to a pulse of focused ultrasound. Enhanced heating of the tissue from finite-amplitude effects was observed. The excess heating was attributed to the nonlinear generation of higher-frequency harmonics which are absorbed more readily than the fundamental. The effect of nonlinear distortion on temperature rise in tissue was observed to range from negligible at 1 MPa source pressure to an 80% increase in temperature elevation at 10 MPa source pressure.     

On the metrology of the speed of sound in liquids

Decentralization of the standards base in measuring the speed of sound in liquids by expressing the speed of sound in fractions of the speed of light in vacuum is considered. A method to take into account the diffraction effects by measuring the speed of sound in the case of a constant acoustic wavelength and binding the absolute speed of sound values to the calculated thermodynamic values obtained by the nonacoustical method when the adiabatic compressibility is equal to the isothermal one is proposed. Errors of the reproducibility of the unit of the speed of sound in water using the proposed method are estimated.     

High temperature equation of state of metallic hydrogen

The equation of state of liquid metallic hydrogen is solved numerically. Investigations are carried out at temperatures from 3000 to 20 000 K and densities from 0.2 to 3 mol/cm³, which correspond both to the experimental conditions under which metallic hydrogen is produced on earth and the conditions in the cores of giant planets of the solar system such as Jupiter and Saturn. It is assumed that hydrogen is in an atomic state and all its electrons are collectivized. Perturbation theory in the electron-proton interaction is applied to determine the thermodynamic potentials of metallic hydrogen. The electron subsystem is considered in the randomphase approximation with regard to the exchange interaction and the correlation of electrons in the local-field approximation. The proton-proton interaction is taken into account in the hard-spheres approximation. The thermodynamic characteristics of metallic hydrogen are calculated with regard to the zero-, second-, and third-order perturbation theory terms. The third-order term proves to be rather essential at moderately high temperatures and densities, although it is much smaller than the second-order term. The thermodynamic potentials of metallic hydrogen are monotonically increasing functions of density and temperature. The values of pressure for the temperatures and pressures that are characteristic of the conditions under which metallic hydrogen is produced on earth coincide with the corresponding values reported by the discoverers of metallic hydrogen to a high degree of accuracy. The temperature and density ranges are found in which there exists a liquid phase of metallic hydrogen.     

Ultrasonic study on organic liquid and binary organic liquid mixtures by using Schaaffs＇ collision factor theory

Based on Schaaff's collision factor theory (CFT) in liquids, the equations for nonlinear ultrasonic parameters in both organic liquid and binary organic liquid mixtures are deduced. The nonlinear ultrasonic parameters, including pressure coefficient, temperature coefficients of ultrasonic velocity, and nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A in both organic liquid and binary organic liquid mixtures, are evaluated for comparison with the measured results and data from other sources. The equations show that the coefficient of ultrasonic velocity and nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A are closely related to molecular interactions. These nonlinear ultrasonic parameters reflect some information of internal structure and outside status of the medium or mixtures. From the exponent of repulsive forces of the molecules, several thermodynamic parameters, pressure and temperature of the medium, the nonlinear ultrasonic parameters and ultrasonic nature of the medium can be evaluated. When evaluating and studying nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A of binary organic liquid mixtures, there is no need to know the nonlinear acoustic parameter B/A of the components. Obviously, the equation reveals the connection between the nonlinear ultrasonic nature and internal structure and outside status of the mixtures more directly and distinctly than traditional mixture law for B/A, e.g. Apfel's and Sehgal's laws for liquid binary mixtures.     

The role of higher-order terms in perturbation approaches to the monomer and bonding contributions in a SAFT-type equation of state for square-well chain fluids

A perturbation theory for square-well chain fluids is developed within the scheme of the (generalised) Wertheim thermodynamic perturbation theory. The theory is based on the Pavlyukhin parametrisations [Y. T. Pavlyukhin, J. Struct. Chem. 53, 476 (2012)] of their simulation data for the first four perturbation terms in the high temperature expansion of the Helmholtz free energy of square-well monomer fluids combined with a second-order perturbation theory for the contact value of the radial distribution function of the square-well monomer fluid that enters into bonding contribution. To obtain the latter perturbation terms, we have performed computer simulations in the hard-sphere reference system. The importance of the perturbation terms beyond the second-order one for the monomer fluid and of the approximations of different orders in the bonding contribution for the chain fluids in the predicted equation of state, excess energy and liquid–vapour coexistence densities is analysed.     

Application of SH surface acoustic waves for measuring the viscosity of liquids in function of pressure and temperature

Viscosity measurements were carried out on triolein at pressures from atmospheric up to 650 MPa and in the temperature range from 10 °C to 40 °C using ultrasonic measuring setup. Bleustein–Gulyaev SH surface acoustic waves waveguides were used as viscosity sensors. Additionally, pressure changes occurring during phase transition have been measured over the same temperature range. Application of ultrasonic SH surface acoustic waves in the liquid viscosity measurements at high pressure has many advantages. It enables viscosity measurement during phase transitions and in the high-pressure range where the classical viscosity measurement methods cannot operate. Measurements of phase transition kinetics and viscosity of liquids at high pressures and various temperatures (isotherms) is a novelty. The knowledge of changes in viscosity in function of pressure and temperature can help to obtain a deeper insight into thermodynamic properties of liquids.     

Relationship between the molecular constant,isothermal volume derivative of thermodynamic Grüneisen parameter,nonlinearity parameter and intermolecular forces in liquids

The isochoric temperature derivative of sound velocity, Beyer’s nonlinearity parameter, the isothermal volume derivatives of thermodynamic Grüneisen parameter and isochoric heat capacity and the repulsive exponent of intermolecular potential are shown to be related to the molecular constant representing the ratio of internal pressure to cohesive pressure of liquids. The calculated values are reasonably satisfactory and explain the experimental results on sound propagation data of liquids. The results have been used to develop further understanding of the significance of molecular constant, fractional free volume and repulsive exponent of intermolecular potential in describing various thermoacoustic and nonlinear properties and the anharmonic behaviour with regard to molecular order and intermolecular interactions in liquids.     

Third-order elastic constants and pressure derivatives of the second-order elastic constants of β-tin

The second- and third-order elastic constants and pressure derivatives of second-order elastic constants of tetragonal β-tin have been obtained using the deformation theory. The strain energy density derived using the deformation theory is compared with the strain dependent lattice energy obtained from the elastic continuum model approximation to get the expressions for the second- and third-order elastic constants. Higher order elastic constants are a measure of the anharmonicity of a crystal lattice. The 12 non-vanishing third-order elastic constants and the six pressure derivatives of the second-order elastic constants in tetragonal β-tin are obtained in the present work and are compared with the available experimental values. The second-order elastic constant C₃₃ obtained in the present study is in reasonable agreement with the experimental values. The third-order elastic constants are generally one order of magnitude greater than the second-order elastic constants as expected of a crystalline solid. The third-order elastic constant C₃₃₃ is higher in magnitude than all other values. This shows a greater anharmonicity of β-tin along the c-axis direction of the crystal.     

Determination of the acoustic nonlinearity parameter in biological media using FAIS and ITD methods

Two methods for determination of the acoustic nonlinearity parameter B/A in biological media are presented. One is the finite amplitude insert-substitution method (FAIS), considering the influence of both the sound attenuation of samples and the diffraction of the transducer on the experimental measurement. The other is the improved thermodynamic method (ITD), based on the measurement of phase shifts in the acoustic wave due to the change of ambient pressure. The nonlinearity parameter B/A has been measured for various biological solutions and soft tissues using these two methods. Some results of dependence of B/A values on the concentration and temperature are also presented here.     

流体PVT的对应关系

本文依据对应态原理,提出新定义的对比压缩因子Zr=(1-Z)/(1-ZC)的无量纲交换式和对饱和温度的对比温度Tsr=T/Ts式,并根据两种流体工质对比压力Pr1=Pr2,对比温度Tsr1=Tsr2相等时,Zr1=Zr2相等的原则,导出了从一种已知PVT关系的物质推算它种物质的PVT值的通用方法。用本方法以水为标准物质推算了R12、R131、R134a、C2H4等几种物质在过热气体区、超临界区和液体区比容,计算值与文献实验值的平均偏差小于2,最大偏差小于4%。     

Acoustic nonlinearity parameter tomography for biological tissues via parametric array from a circular piston source--theoretical analysis and computer simulations

The acoustic nonlinearity parameter B/A describes the nonlinear features of a medium and may become a novel parameter for ultrasonic tissue characterization. This paper presents a theoretical analysis for acoustic nonlinear parameter tomography via a parametric array. As two primary waves of different frequencies are radiated simultaneously from a circular piston source, a secondary wave at the difference frequency is generated due to the nonlinear interaction of the primary waves. The axial and radial distributions of sound pressure amplitude for the generated difference frequency wave in the near field are calculated by a superposition of Gaussian beams. The calculated results indicated that the difference frequency component of the parametric array grows linearly with distance from the piston source. It therefore provides a better source to do the acoustic nonlinearity parameter tomography because the fundamental and second harmonic signals both have a near field that goes through many oscillations due to diffraction. By using a finite-amplitude insert substitution method and a filtered convolution algorithm, a computer simulation for B/A tomography from the calculated sound pressure of the difference frequency wave is studied. For biological tissues, the sound attenuation is considered and compensated in the image reconstruction. Nonlinear parameter computed tomography (CT) images for several biological sample models are obtained with quite good quality in this study.     

Thermodynamic properties for the triangular-well fluid

The thermodynamic properties of the triangular-well fluid with a well range of up to twice the hard sphere diameter were studied by means of a new developed equation of state and molecular simulation. This EoS is based on the perturbation theory of Barker and Henderson with the first and second-order perturbation terms evaluated by molecular simulation and then a fit with a simple function based on the radial distribution function of the reference fluid. The thermodynamic properties for the triangular-well fluid were also obtained directly by Gibbs ensemble and NPT Monte Carlo simulations. Good agreement is observed between the proposed EoS and the molecular simulation results. A model for the triangular-well solid is also presented; this has been used to calculate the solid–liquid transition line. Very good agreement is obtained with previously report values for this line and for the triple point temperature and pressure.     

A novel phase locked cavity resonator for B/A measurements in fluids

A new technique for the measurement in fluids of the acoustic non-linearity parameter B/A is presented, together with measured B/A values for several fluids. The non-linearity parameter is measured by phase locking radial modes within a PZT cylinder. The system, which implements the isentropic phase technique, uses continuous wave phase locking to measure the change in sound velocity that is typically associated with a change in ambient pressure under constant entropy. The method provides a means of measuring B/A in vitro both accurately and simply without the typical problems involved in time-of-flight systems. Fluid samples can remain small due to the nature of the cavity resonator, so the system is well suited to small volume, biological samples.     

Measurement of the B/A nonlinearity parameter under high pressure: application to water

An experimental apparatus was developed to measure, over a wide range of pressure, the acoustical nonlinear parameter B/A with an uncertainty of 2.2% in order to study the influence of pressure on the value of this parameter in liquids. The experimental technique rests on an improved thermodynamic method which uses a highly sensitive phase comparison technique to measure the change in speed of sound with pressure. The apparatus was then used to measure B/A in water within the pressure range from 0.1 to 50 MPa and at temperatures of between 303.15 and 373.15 K. The data obtained were compared with those in the literature which come from numerical derivation of speed of sound measurements.     

Generation of higher acoustic harmonics at a flat rough interface between two solids

The results of experimental studies of the influence of a static pressure applied to a flat rough interface between two solids on its nonlinear elastic properties are presented. The studies were performed by the spectral method on the basis of an analysis of the efficiency of generation of higher acoustic harmonics, which arise upon the reflection of a longitudinal elastic wave of finite amplitude from the boundary and the passage through it. A nonmonotonic dependence of the amplitudes of acoustic harmonics on the value of the external reversible static pressure applied to the interface was revealed: pronounced amplitude maxima for the amplitudes of the second and third harmonics were observed with a decrease in the external static pressure. It was also found that the amplitudes of the second, third, and fourth acoustic harmonics increase with a decrease in the external static pressure (in comparison with their values at the same pressure values during its increase). The experimentally determined power dependence of the higher acoustic harmonics on the amplitude of the first acoustic harmonic significantly differed from the classical indices for these harmonics. The influence of the external pressure on the values of the nonlinear second- and third-order elastic parameters was analyzed. The experimental results were analyzed on the basis of nonclassical acoustic nonlinearity.     

强超声在空化液体中的反常衰减

采用自动控制系统,逐点测量了长方形水槽内液体中不同位置的声压。研究发现,随着驱动声压的增大,近场声压持续增大,但衰减速度也加快,而远场声压会经历一个先上升后下降的反常过程。通过对容器中不同位置声压进行频谱分析,得到声波不同频率分量随传播距离的变化规律。结合频谱的分析表明,上述反常过程的原因是高驱动声压下气泡的非线性振动将更多声能量转移至衰减较快的高次谐波,从而导致远场的声压反而低于较低驱动时对应的声压。      

Vapour pressure of non-polar fluids and their repulsive and attractive contributions

Using a simple equation of state, based on the Weeks-Chandler-Andersen separation of the intermolecular potential, we have obtained the contributions of repulsive and attractive intermolecular forces to the thermodynamic properties of coexisting vapour and liquid phases of a Lennard-Jones (LJ) fluid.

In order to obtain the vapour pressure of real non-polar fluids, we take the LJ fluid as a reference model, and propose a new perturbative contribution, which is dependant on the temperature and on the acentric factor of the substance. Using the complete perturbed equation, we determine the corresponding repulsive and attractive contributions to the vapour pressure of non-polar fluids. The results show that the attractive vapour pressure of non-polar fluids increases with increasing acentric factor, i.e., larger deviation of the molecular shape from spherical symmetry.

This procedure could be extended to separate the repulsive and attractive contributions of the intermolecular forces to other thermodynamic properties of non-polar fluids as well as of polar fluids and fluid mixtures.