Fuel cell performance assessment for closed-loop renewable energy systems

Fuel cells and electrolysis are promising candidates for future energy production from renewable energy sources. Usually, polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems run on hydrogen and air, while the most of electrolysis systems vent out oxygen as unused by-product. Replacing air with pure oxygen, fuel cell electrochemical performance, durability and system efficiency can be significantly increased with a further overall system simplification and increased reliability. This work, which represents the initial step for pure H_2/O_2 polymer electrolyte fuel cell operation in closed-loop systems, focuses on performance validation of a single cell operating with pure H_2/O_2 under different relative humidity(RH) levels, reactants stoichiometry conditions and temperature. As a result of this study, the most convenient and appropriate operative conditions for a polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack integrated in a closed loop system were selected.     

Polyelectrolyte Membranes Based on Sulfonated Syndiotactic Polystyrene in Its Clathrate Form

Recently, more and more attention has been focused on new techniques for energy production also in view of environmental problems. A noticeable device is small fuel cell that converts chemical energy into electric energy by electrochemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen, and exhibits a high-energy efficiency. Conventional small fuel cells have been classified into phosphoric acid-type fuel cells, molten carbonate-type fuel cells, solid oxide-type fuel cells, solid polymer type fuel cells, etc., according to the type of electrolyte used. The target of this work is the development of a new process to build up polyelectrolyte membranes, for polymer type fuel cell (PEM), by sulfonating syndiotactic polystyrene in its clathrate form. The polyelectrolyte membranes of this paper are inexpensive and exhibit good long-term stability and ion exchange capability.     

The potential of proton exchange membrane–based electrolysis technology

Hydrogen is an important chemical feedstock for many industrial applications, and today, more than 95% of this feedstock is generated from fossil fuel sources such as reforming of natural gas. In addition, the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels represents most carbon dioxide emissions from large chemical processes such as ammonia generation. Renewable sources of hydrogen such as hydrogen from water electrolysis need to be driven to similar production costs as methane reforming to address global greenhouse gas emission concerns. Water electrolysis has begun to show scalability to relevant capacities to address this need, but materials and manufacturing advancements need to be made to meet the cost targets. This article describes specific needs for one pathway based on proton exchange membrane electrolysis technology.     

Protonic conducting organic/inorganic nanocomposites for polymer electrolyte membrane

Protonic conducting membrane can be used in many energy technological applications such as fuel cells, water electrolysis, hydrogen separation, sensors and other electrochemical devices. However, polymer electrolyte membrane usually lack thermal stability, resulting in narrow operational temperature windows. So, a new class of polymer membrane with high temperature stability and protonic conductivity is desired for many industrial applications. In this paper, new synthetic routes have been investigated for organic/inorganic nanocomposites hybrid polymer membranes of SiO₂/polymer (polyethylene oxides (PEO); polypropylene oxide (PPO); polytetramethylene oxide (PTMO)). Novel protonic conducting properties have also been investigated. The materials have been synthesized through sol–gel processes in flexible, ductile free-standing thin membrane form. The hybrid membrane has been found to be thermally stable up to 250°C and possess protonic conductivities of approximately 10⁻⁴ S/cm at temperature windows from room temperature to 160°C and relative humidity.     

Chlorherstellung mit Sauerstoffverzehrkathoden. Energieeinsparung bei der Elektrolyse

Chlorine is one of the most important base chemicals and is required for the manufacture of about two‐thirds of all chemical products such as polymers, crop protection and pharmaceutical products, products for drinking water purification, and ultrapure silicon for photovoltaics and electronics applications. The industrial chlorine production through the chlor‐alkali electrolysis has since 1975 mainly been based on the advanced membrane process. Chlorine recycling by manufacturing processes based on hydrogen chloride has also become increasingly important. The still very high energy demand for the electrochemical chlorine synthesis can be significantly reduced by up to 30 % if the hydrogen evolving cathodes in the classical processes are replaced by oxygen depolarized cathodes (ODC) which are well known from fuel cells. Hydrogen chloride electrolysis with ODCs is already carried out in world‐scale plants. The more important chlor‐alkali process with ODCs will be realized for the first time in 2011 in a demonstration unit with a chlorine capacity of 20000 tons per year in Uerdingen, Germany.     

L'hydrogene pour le transport sur route : réalisations et développements

Hydrogen for road transportation : achievements and developments. At the beginning of this millenium, hydrogen appears as a potential energy carrier for the future. Thus, it could serve as a storage medium for renewable energy forms, which should play an increasing part in the world energy supply. In a closer future, hydrogen could also become a fuel for prospective fuel-cell and internal-combustion vehicles. We present here an inventory of the various technologies related to the use of hydrogen in road transportation : propulsion type (fuel cell and electric motor, or internal combustion engine), hydrogen production, on-board storage, infrastructure. Safety, standardization and regulation aspects will also be addressed. Presently, the majority of hydrogen buses are equipped with polymer membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), directly supplied with hydrogen from pressurized vessels (300 bars). On the other hand, car manufacturers are developing various types of experimental vehicles : internal-combustion engine cars with liquid hydrogen storage, fuel cell (PEMFC) cars with storage of hydrogen (liquid, gaseous, hydride) or of methanol. The type of required infrastructured will depend on the type of fuel chosen by the car makers and on the requirements of the oil companies. Several hydrogen supply stations, of different technologies, have already been set up. They deliver gaseous or liquid hydrogen produced by reforming of natural gas or by electrolysis. The building of a hydrogen-based fueling system requires the development of specific means of production, transportation, storage and delivery. Public acceptance will have to be won by guaranteeing safety, reliability, performance and competitivity. Presently, research and development work is mainly carried out on : on-board storage of hydrogen ; on-board systems for the production of hydrogen from methanol and petrol ; standardization and regulation.     

Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell for Power Accumulation and Generation

The anodic and cathodic polarization dependences for the oxygen electrode based on lanthanum-strontium manganite and the fuel Ni-cermet electrode are studied in the temperature range of 700–900°С in gas media that correspond to working conditions of a reversible fuel cell. The temporal behavior of these electrodes is studied in the course of periodic polarity changes of current with the density of 0.5 A/cm². The electrode overvoltage is shown to be about 0.1 V in modes of power generation and water electrolysis at 900°С and the current density of 0.5 A/cm². A single electrolyte supported tubular solid-oxide fuel cell was fabricated and tested in the fuel-cell and hydrogen-generation modes. It is found that at 900°С and overvoltage of 0.7 V, the cell generates the specific electric power of 0.4 W/cm² when the 50% H2 + 50% H₂O gas mixture is used as the fuel and air is used as the oxidizer. At the water electrolysis with the current density of 0.5 A/cm², which under normal conditions corresponds to generation of about 0.2 and 0.1 L/h of hydrogen and oxygen, respectively, the consumed power is about 0.55 W/cm². The efficiency of the conversion cycle electric power–hydrogen–electric power is 70–75%.     

Development of Polymer Nanocomposites as Electrolyte Membranes

Confidence in the potential of hydrogen as an energy vector and fuel bring the opportunities for enhancing electrolyzer performance. The aim of this paper is to develop new polymer nanocomposites as electrolyte membranes for PEM-electrolyzer. A series of nanocomposite membranes, including GEFC/TiO₂, GEFC/CNTs, and GEFC/TiO₂CNTs have been developed and characterized by FT-IR spectroscopy and AFM. The application of polymer nanocomposite membranes in electrochemical cells for water electrolysis was investigated. Experimental results obtained with respect to performance are reported and discussed related to GEFC membrane.     

Electrochemical characterization of ionically conductive polymer membranes

Cation conductive membranes, especially highly proton conductive membranes, are of interest not only for chlor-alkali electrolysis but for polymer electrolyte fuel cells as well. The very challenge for electrochemical characterization in this case is the low specific resistance of the polymer required for such applications, which in turn makes resistance measurements a non-trivial problem. We investigate the different possibilities to characterize such membranes. The present part of our work deals with the adequate conditioning and equilibration of membranes designed especially for direct methanol fuel cell applications, with the measurement of the conductivity and with the determination of apparent transport numbers in the membrane. The usefulness of the respective leaching investigations, impedance spectroscopy measurements and concentration potential measurements for the case of membranes made from sulfonated poly(phenylene oxide) is discussed.     

基于可再生能源的水电解制氢技术（英文）

在全球变暖,污染日益严重的今天,发展可再生清洁能源成为了当务之急.然而可再生能源(风能、太阳能)本身具有间断特性,这就需要寻找一种合适的能量媒介储存能量来保证其能源的稳定输出.当前,我国各地不断出现弃风、弃光和弃水电事件,据国家能源局的公开数据,仅2016年,全国弃风电量497×10~8 kW·h,弃光率仅西部地区就已达20%,弃风弃光日臻凸显[1].从地域方面来看,我国光伏发电呈现东中西部共同发展格局,其中,西部地区主要发展集中式光伏发电,新疆、甘肃、青海、宁夏的累计装机容量均超过5×10~6 k W·h,而中东部地区除集中式光伏发电外,还重点建设分布式光伏发电,江苏、浙江、山东、安徽的分布式光伏装机规模已超过100万千瓦.我国光伏发电集中开发的西北地区也存在严重的弃光问题.根据中国光伏行业协会发布的报告,我国的弃光现象主要集中于西北的新疆、甘肃、青海、宁夏和陕西五省区.据统计,2016年,五省区光伏发电量287.17×10~8 k W·h,弃光电量70.42×10~8 k W·h,弃光率为19.81%,各省区光伏发电并网运行数据如表格所示.可以看出,新疆、甘肃光伏发电运行较为困难,弃光电量绝对值高,弃光率分别达到32.23%和30.45%[2].在新能源体系中,氢能是一种理想的二次能源,与其它能源相比,氢热值高,其能量密度(140 MJ/kg)是固体燃料(50MJ/kg)的两倍多.且燃烧产物为水,是最环保的能源,既能以气、液相的形式存储在高压罐中,也能以固相的形式储存在储氢材料中,如金属氢化物、配位氢化物、多孔材料等.对可再生和可持续能源系统,氢气是一种极好的能量存储介质.氢气作为能源载体的优势在于:(1)氢和电能之间通过电解水技术可实现高效相互转换;(2)压缩的氢气有很高的能量密度;(3)氢气具有成比例放大到电网规模应用的潜力.制氢的方式有很多,包括:化石燃料重整、分解、光解或水解等.全球每年总共需要约40亿吨氢气,95%以上的氢气是通过化石燃料重整来获得,生产过程必然排出CO_2,而电解水技术利用可再生能源获得的电能进行规模产氢,可实现CO_2的零排放,可将具有强烈波动特性的风能、太阳能转换为氢能,更利于储存与运输.所存储的氢气可用于燃料电池发电,或单独用作燃料气体,也可作为化工原料.通过水电解方式获得的氢气纯度较高,可达99.9%以上.     

Nanoscale membrane electrode assemblies based on porous anodic alumina for hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell

In this paper, we demonstrate that nanoscale membrane electrode assemblies, functioning in a H₂/O₂ fuel cell, can be fabricated by impregnation of anodic alumina porous membranes with Nafion® and phosphotungstic acid. Porous anodic alumina is potentially a promising material for thin-film micro power sources because of its ability to be manipulated in micro-machining operations. Alumina membranes (Whatman, 50 μm thick, and pore diameters of 200 nm) impregnated with the proton conductor were characterized by means of scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and thermal analysis. The electrochemical characterization of the membrane electrode assemblies was carried out by recording the polarization curves of a hydrogen–oxygen 5 cm² fuel cell working at low temperatures (25?÷?80 °C) in humid atmosphere. Our assemblies realized with alumina membranes filled with phosphotungstic acid and Nafion® reach respectively the peak powers of 20 and 4 mW/cm² at room temperature using hydrogen and oxygen as fuel and oxidizer.     

面向氢能源、燃料电池和二氧化碳减排的制氢途径的选择

对氢气的多种制造途径加以探讨,也涉及到氢能的利用、燃料电池以及二氧化碳的减排。需要指出的是氢气并非能源,而只是能量的载体。 所以氢能的发展首先需要制造氢气。对于以化石燃料为基础的制氢过程,如煤的气化和天然气重整,需要开发更经济和环境友好的新过程,在这些新过程中要同时考虑二氧化碳的有效收集和利用问题。对于煤和生物质,在此提出了一种值得进一步深入研究的富一氧化碳气化制氢的概念。对于以氢为原料的质子交换膜燃料电池系统,必须严格控制制备的氢气中的一氧化碳和硫化氢;对于以烃类为原料的固体氧化物燃料电池,制备的合成气中的硫也需严格控制。然而,传统的脱硫方法并不适宜于这种用于燃料电池的极高深度的氢气和合成气的脱硫。氢能和燃料电池的发展是与控制二氧化碳排放紧密相关的。     

电解醇制氢

发展了利用甲醇直接电解制氢这种经济的制氢方法, 实验结果表明电解甲醇制氢能够极大地降低电能消耗. 此方法的新颖之处在于方法简单和成本低. 将直接甲醇燃料电池膜电极作为电解装置, 可以达到任何规模的要求. 如果将这种电解装置与太阳能电池联用, 可非常经济地制氢及氢气储存, 或直接向燃料电池或其它化学工程装置供氢.     

Prospects for Production and Use of Hydrogen as one of Directions of the Development of Low-Carbon Economy in the Russian Federation

Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry - Prospects for the production and use in the Russian Federation of hydrogen produced from fossil fuel and by water electrolysis are considered. The amount of...     

A Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Oxygen Evolution and Oxygen Reduction Reactions in Water

Oxygen reduction and water oxidation are two key processes in fuel cell applications. The oxidation of water to dioxygen is a 4 H⁺/4 e^? process, while oxygen can be fully reduced to water by a 4 e^?/4 H⁺ process or partially reduced by fewer electrons to reactive oxygen species such as H₂O₂ and O₂^?. We demonstrate that a novel manganese corrole complex behaves as a bifunctional catalyst for both the electrocatalytic generation of dioxygen as well as the reduction of dioxygen in aqueous media. Furthermore, our combined kinetic, spectroscopic, and electrochemical study of manganese corroles adsorbed on different electrode materials (down to a submolecular level) reveals mechanistic details of the oxygen evolution and reduction processes.     

Flower-like Fe-Co-M (M=S,O, P and Se) Nanosheet Arrays Grown on Nickel Foam as High-efficiency Bifunctional Electrocatalysts

The development of highly efficient, inexpensive, abundant and non-precious metal electrocatalysts is the lifeblood of the hydrogen production industry, especially the hydrogen production industry by electrolysis of water. A Fe-Co-S/NF bifunctional electrocatalyst with nanoflower-like structure was synthesized on three-dimensional porous nickel foam through one-step hydrothermal and one-step high-temperature sulfuration operations, and the material displays high-efficiency electrocatalytic performance. As a catalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction, Fe-Co-S/NF can drive a current density of 10 mA/cm² at an overpotential of 143 mV with a Tafel slope of 80.2 mV/dec. When it was used as an oxygen evolution reaction catalyst, it exhibits good OER reactivity with a low Tafel slope (82.6 mV/dec) and with requiring only 117 mV overpotential to drive current densities up to 50 mA/cm². In addition, the Fe-Co-S/NF//Fe-Co-S/NF electrolytic cell was assembled, an electrolysis voltage of 1.64 V is required to drive a current density of 50 mA/cm², which is one of the most active catalysts reported so far. This work indicates that the introduction of S, P and Se treating processes could effectively improve electrical conductivity of the material and enhance the catalytic activity of the material. This work offers an effective and convenient method for improving the morphology of the catalyst, increasing the surface area of the catalyst and developing high-efficiency and low-cost catalysts.     

水电解析氢低贵/非贵金属催化剂的研究进展

氢气作为能量载体的氢能技术由于其清洁性、高能量密度等优势已获得越来越多的青睐与关注. 其中,可持续的产氢技术是未来氢能经济发展的必要先决条件. 通过可再生资源电力驱动的电解水技术是支持氢能经济可持续发展的重要途径,高活性、低成本的析氢催化剂的开发利用是提高水电解技术效率并降低其成本的关键因素. 本文主要介绍了近年来包括低铂催化剂和金属硫化物、金属磷化物、金属硒化物等非铂过渡金属催化剂在析氢方面的研究进展,详细讨论了析氢反应的催化性能、合成方法以及结构?鄄催化性能的关系,最后总结展望了水电解低铂及非铂过渡金属催化剂在未来发展过程中所面临的机遇与挑战.     

Principles of Water Electrolysis and Recent Progress in Cobalt-, Nickel-, and Iron-Based Oxides for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction

Water electrolysis that results in green hydrogen is the key process towards a circular economy. The supply of sustainable electricity and availability of oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts are the main bottlenecks of the process for large-scale production of green hydrogen. A broad range of OER electrocatalysts have been explored to decrease the overpotential and boost the kinetics of this sluggish half-reaction. Co-, Ni-, and Fe-based catalysts have been considered to be potential candidates to replace noble metals due to their tunable 3d electron configuration and spin state, versatility in terms of crystal and electronic structures, as well as abundance in nature. This Review provides some basic principles of water electrolysis, key aspects of OER, and significant criteria for the development of the catalysts. It provides also some insights on recent advances of Co-, Ni-, and Fe-based oxides and a brief perspective on green hydrogen production and the challenges of water electrolysis.     

Role of membranes and membrane reactors in the hydrogen supply of fuel cells

Production, storage and supply of high-purity hydrogen as a clean and efficient fuel is a key point for the development of fuel cell technology, in particular in vehicle traction. Presently, technologies for handling liquefied or gaseous hydrogen in transports are not available so that various alternative fuels are considered with the aim of in-situ generation of hydrogen through catalytic processes. The concept of integrated membrane reactors (MRs) can greatly benefit to these technologies. Particular emphasis is put on inorganic membranes and their role in MR performance for H₂ production.     

A Fiber Optic Lactate Biosensor with an Oxygen Optrode as the Transducer

Abstract

A biosensor for continuous determination of lactate is presented. Lactate monooxygenase was immobilized covalently on nylon membranes, and the consumption of oxygen was measured by following, via a fiber optic bundle, the changes in the fluorescence of an oxygen-sensitive dye dissolved in 10- and 25-um silicone membranes placed beneath the enzyme layer. Oxygen is consumed as a result of the oxidation of lactate by the enzyme, and the decrease in its partial pressure is indicated by the fluorescent dye. For two types of sensors (with different nylon membranes and different thicknesses of the indicator layer) the analytical ranges were 2–50 mM and 0.3–6.0 mM, with response times (t₉₀) of 2.3–3.0 and 4.0–6.0 min, respectively.