Science as a Learner and as a Teacher: Measuring Science Self‐Efficacy of Elementary Preservice Teachers

Academic science achievement of U.S. students has raised concerns regarding our ability as a nation to compete in a global economy. Additionally, research has shown that many elementary teachers have weak science content backgrounds and had poor/negative experiences as students of science, resulting in a lack of confidence regarding teaching science. However, efforts to increase science self‐efficacy (SE) in preservice teachers can help to combat these issues. This study looked at a sample of preservice elementary teachers engaged in a semester‐long science content course, using Bandura's concept of SE as a conceptual framework. Our quantitative data showed significant increases in science SE on both subscales (personal efficacy and outcome expectancy). Our qualitative data showed that students communicated an increased sense of confidence with regard to the discipline of science. In addition, students reported learning science pedagogy through the instructor's modeling. Combining our findings resulted in several meta‐inferences, one of which showed students growing as both confident learners of science and teachers of science simultaneously. We created a construct new to the literature to describe this phenomenon: “teacher‐learner,” for students are both learning science and learning to teach science simultaneously through the content course experience, resulting in increased science SE.     

Science and Mathematics Instruction in a Reform‐based Teacher Preparation Program

This study examined the science and mathematics instruction of teachers who were initially prepared by the Collaboratives for Excellence in Teacher Preparation program (CETP). The focus of this study was on examining the extent to which science and mathematics teachers used more reform‐oriented instructional practices in their classes when they entered the teaching profession. Data were gathered from twelve different CETP projects across the United States. A quasi‐experimental design was used where science and mathematics teachers who were initially prepared by the CETP program were followed into the field and compared to teachers who were not prepared by the CETP program. The results indicate that the teachers prepared by the CETP program used slightly more reform‐oriented instructional practices than teachers who were not prepared by the CETP program, although both mathematics and science teachers reported low levels of reform‐oriented instruction. Implications of results for large‐scale reform of science and mathematics teacher preparation are discussed.     

Relationships Between Inquiry‐Based Teaching and Physical Science Standardized Test Scores

This exploratory case study investigates relationships between use of an inquiry‐based instructional style and student scores on standardized multiple‐choice tests. The study takes the form of a case study of physical science classes taught by one of the authors over a span of four school years. The first 2 years were taught using traditional instruction with low levels of inquiry (non‐inquiry group), and the last 2 years of classes were taught by inquiry methods. Students' physical science test scores, achievement data, and attendance data were examined and compared across both instructional styles. Results suggest that for this teacher the use of an inquiry‐based teaching style did not dramatically alter students' overall achievement, as measured by North Carolina's standardized test in physical science. However, inquiry‐based instruction had other positive effects, such as a dramatic improvement in student participation and higher classroom grades earned by students. In additional inquiry‐based instruction resulted in more uniform achievement than did traditional instruction, both in classroom measures and in more objective standardized test measures.     

Students' Attitudes Toward Science as Predictors of Gains on Student Content Knowledge: Benefits of an After‐School Program

High‐quality after‐school programs devoted to science have the potential to enhance students' science knowledge and attitudes, which may impact their decisions about pursuing science‐related careers. Because of the unique nature of these informal learning environments, an understanding of the relationships among aspects of students' content knowledge acquisition and attitudes toward science may aid in the development of effective science‐related interventions. We investigated the impact of a semester‐long after‐school intervention utilizing an inquiry‐based infectious diseases curriculum (designed for use after‐school) on 63 urban students' content knowledge and aspects of their attitudes toward science. Content knowledge increased 24.6% from pretest to posttest. Multiple regression analyses indicated suggested that the “self‐directed effort” subscale of the Simpson–Troost Attitude Questionnaire—Revised best predicted increases in students' science content knowledge. The construct “science is fun for me” served as a suppressor effect. These findings suggest that future after‐school programs focusing on aspects of attitudes toward science most closely associated with gains in content knowledge might improve students' enthusiasm and academic preparedness for additional science coursework by improving student attitudes toward their perceptions of their self‐directed effort.     

Beginning Secondary Science Teachers' Conceptualization and Enactment of Inquiry‐Based Instruction

This study investigates the conceptions and use of inquiry during classroom instruction among beginning secondary science teachers. The 44 participants were beginning secondary science teachers in their first year of teaching. In order to capture the participants' conceptions of inquiry, the teachers were interviewed and observed during the school year. The interviews consisted of questions about inquiry instruction, while the observations documented the teachers' use of inquiry. All of the interviews were transcribed or coded in order to understand the conceptions of inquiry held by the teachers, and all of the observations were analyzed in order to determine the presence of inquiry during the lesson. The standard for assessing inquiry came from the National Science Education Standards. A quantitative analysis of the data indicated that the teachers frequently talked about implementing “scientific questions” and giving “priority to evidence.” This study found a consistency between the way new teachers talked about inquiry and the way they practiced it in their classrooms. Overall, our observations and interviews revealed that the beginning secondary science teachers tended to enact teacher‐centered forms of inquiry, and could benefit from induction programs focused on inquiry instruction.     

Teaching Science as Science Is Practiced: Opportunities and Limits for Enhancing Preservice Elementary Teachers' Self‐Efficacy for Science and Science Teaching

Science teaching in elementary schools, or the lack thereof, continues to be an area of concern and criticism. Preservice elementary teachers' lack of confidence in teaching science is a major part of this problem. In this mixed‐methods study, we report the impacts of an inquiry‐based science course on preservice elementary teachers' self‐efficacy for science and science teaching, understanding of science, and willingness to teach it in their future careers. Our findings suggest that for some students, the inquiry‐based science course positively influenced their self‐efficacy for science and science teaching. Gains were made in a majority of students' conceptual understanding of science, understanding of the science process and scientific research, and confidence with science and science teaching. The subjects did not experience the course uniformly, however. Rather, there appeared to be two distinct groups, one on a trajectory of improving their outlook on science teaching and one worsening. The results presented here therefore provoke some interesting questions regarding preservice elementary teachers' preparation for science teaching.     

Students' Perceptions of Single‐Gender Science and Mathematics Classroom Experiences

While participating in single‐ and mixed‐gender science and mathematics classes, ninth‐grade urban high school students' (n= 118) academic self‐concept, self‐efficacy, and school climate perceptions were examined. Their perceptions were measured quantitatively from the Fennema‐Sherman Mathematics (modified for Science) Attitude and the Patterns of Adaptive Learning scales. Five factors arose from each instrument: confidence/efficacy, utility, instruction, climate, and anxiety/performance avoidance. Comparative factor analysis of the science‐modified Fennema‐Sherman Scale showed similar constructs within the mathematics scale. Our findings are congruent with reports concerning single‐gender classrooms that find few significant differences in students' attitudes toward science and mathematics, or classroom climate, with regard to single‐gender classes. Lastly, our results supported three structural equation models for the hypothesized factors from each instrument.     

Community‐Based Service‐Learning as a Source of Personal Self‐Efficacy: Preparing Preservice Elementary Teachers to Teach Science for Diversity

Bandura (1997) contends that when compared to other sources of efficacy, mastery experiences, when presented appropriately, have the most powerful influence on self‐efficacy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of community‐based service learning (CBSL) experiences on preservice elementary teachers' personal self‐efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching and learning. Data were collected using pretests‐posttests and post‐questionnaires with the study sample. Findings from this study support Bandura's assertion. CBSL experiences were an important source of personal self‐efficacy and significantly influenced preservice elementary teachers' personal self‐efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching and learning.     

Validation of the Diagnostic Teacher Assessment of Mathematics and Science (DTAMS) Instrument

The Diagnostic Teacher Assessment in Mathematics and Science (DTAMS) was developed to measure the content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of middle‐school teachers. Its reliability and validity were initially established by reviewing national standards for content and use of expert question writing teams and reviewers. DTAMS was administered to approximately 1,600 middle‐school mathematics teachers in 17 states. Subsequent analyses using structural equation modeling and item response theory were performed as part of a multistage validation process. This evaluation contributes to the body of work describing the reliability and validity of these assessments. The results of this study confirm trends in middle‐school mathematics teacher preparation and certification and help explain middle‐school student mathematics achievement levels.     

Exploring the Relationship Between Teaching Efficacy and Cultural Efficacy of Novice Science Teachers in High‐Needs Schools

This qualitative case study sought to investigate what relationship exists between teaching efficacy and cultural efficacy of novice science teachers in high‐needs, high‐minority urban schools. One major theme—the importance of establishing positive teacher–student relationships—surrounding teaching efficacy in the context of cultural efficacy emerged. The data sources included: (a) teachers' responses to a focus group interview conducted at the end of their first year, (b) written reports and documentation from university‐based field supervisors' observations during the teachers' first year, and (c) teachers' self‐reported responses on the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument designed to measure science teaching efficacy. Final analysis of the data reflects a strong relationship between teaching efficacy and practice within the context of culture. The results of this study also indicated an existing relationship between teaching efficacy and cultural efficacy through cultural connections with students. Encouraging the development of teacher efficacy in the context of cultural efficacy becomes important at all levels of teacher preparation, especially to ensure the retention of high‐quality science teachers in high‐needs schools.     

The Effect of Nature of Science Metacognitive Prompts on Science Students’ Content and Nature of Science Knowledge,Metacognition, and Self‐Regulatory Efficacy

The purpose of the present explanatory mixed‐method design is to examine the effectiveness of a developmental intervention, Embedded Metacognitive Prompts based on Nature of Science (EMPNOS) to teach the nature of science using metacognitive prompts embedded in an inquiry unit. Eighty‐three (N = 83) eighth‐grade students from four classrooms were randomly assigned to an experimental and a comparison group. All participants were asked to respond to a number of tests (content and nature of science knowledge) and surveys (metacognition and self‐regulatory efficacy). Participants were also interviewed. It was hypothesized that the experimental group would outperform the comparison group in all measures. Partial support for the hypotheses was found. Specifically, results showed significant gains in content knowledge and nature of science knowledge of the experimental group over the comparison group. Qualitative findings revealed that students in the comparison group reported scientific thinking in similar terms as the scientific method, while the experimental group reported that scientists were creative and had to explain events using evidence, which is more closely aligned to the aspects of the nature of science. EMPNOS may have implications as a useful classroom tool in guiding students to check their thinking for alignment to the nature of science.     

Understanding of Earth and Space Science Concepts: Strategies for Concept‐Building in Elementary Teacher Preparation

This research is concerned with preservice teacher understanding of six earth and space science concepts that are often taught in elementary school: the reason for seasons, phases of the moon, why the wind blows, the rock cycle, soil formation, and earthquakes. Specifically, this study examines the effect of readings, hands‐on learning stations, and concept mapping in improving conceptual understanding. Undergraduates in two sections of a science methods course (N= 52) completed an open‐ended survey, giving explanations about the above concepts three times: as a pretest and twice as posttests after various instructional interventions. The answers, scored with a three point rubric, indicated that the preservice teachers initially had many misconceptions (alternative conceptions). A two way ANOVA with repeated measures analysis (pretest/posttest) demonstrated that readings and learning stations are both successful in building preservice teacher's understanding and that benefits from the hands‐on learning stations approached statistical significance. Concept mapping had an additive effect in building understanding, as evident on the second posttest. The findings suggest useful strategies for university science instructors to use in clarifying science concepts while modeling activities teachers can use in their own classrooms.     

Expanding the Role of K‐5 Science Instruction in Educational Reform: Implications of an Interdisciplinary Model for Integrating Science and Reading

Addressed is the current practice in educational reform of reducing time for science instruction in favor of traditional reading/language arts instruction. In contrast, presented is an evidence‐based rationale for increasing instructional time for K‐5 science instruction as an educational reform initiative. Overviewed are consensus interdisciplinary research and complementary multi‐year findings of the Science IDEAS model demonstrating the effectiveness of integrating conceptually‐relevant reading within science instruction in improving student achievement in both science and reading comprehension. Based on research summarized, increasing time for integrated K‐5 science is advocated as a meaningful reform‐based approach to science learning and reading comprehension proficiency that, in turn, better prepares students for subsequent success in science and content‐area reading comprehension across upper elementary and middle school grades (3–8).     

Psychometric Re‐evaluation of the Image of Science and Scientists Scale (ISSS)

An enduring concern among science education researchers is the “swing away from science” ( Osborne. 2003 ). One of their central dilemmas is to identify—or construct—a valid outcome measure that could assess curricular effectiveness, and predict students' choices of science courses, university majors, or careers in science. Many instruments have been created and variably evaluated. The primary purpose of this paper was to re‐evaluate the psychometric properties of the Image of Science and Scientists Scale (ISSS) ( Krajkovich 1978 ). In the current study, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the dimensionality of the 29‐item ISSS, which was administered to 531 middle school students in three San Antonio. Texas school districts at the beginning of the 2004–2005 school year. The results failed to confirm the presumed 1‐factor structure of the ISSS. but instead showed a 3‐factor structure with only marginal fit with the data, even after removal of 12 inadequate items. The three dimensions were “Positive Images of Scientists” (5 items). “Negative Images of Scientists” (9 items), and “Science Avocation” (3 items). The results do not support use of the original form of the ISSS for measuring “attitudes toward science,”“images of scientists. “or “scientific attitudes. “Shortening the scale from 29 to 17 items makes it more feasible to use in a classroom setting. Determining whether the three dimensions identified in our analysis. “Positive Images of Scientists. ““Negative Images of Scientists. “and “Science Avocation “contain useful assessments of middle school student impressions and attitudes will require independent investigation in other samples.     

Investigating Essential Characteristics of Scientific Practices in Elementary Science Learning Environments: The Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP)

Within the field of science education, there remains little agreement as to the definition and characteristics of classroom inquiry. The emerging emphasis on scientific practices in science education reform discourse is underpinned by a need to better articulate the constituent elements of inquiry‐based science. While a small number of observation‐based instruments have been developed to characterize science learning environments, few are explicitly aligned with theoretical constructs articulated by the National Research Council and/or have been substantially field‐tested. We employ a newly developed instrument, the Practices of Science Observation Protocol (P‐SOP), to investigate essential features of inquiry and scientific practices in which early learners engage in elementary classrooms. This research is part of a multiyear professional development program designed to support elementary teachers (K‐5) in a large, urban school district to learn to better engage students in scientific practices. Project teachers video‐recorded enacted science lessons (n = 124) which were used as data. Findings illustrate both essential features of inquiry and scientific practices observed in elementary classrooms, as well as establish the P‐SOP as a valid and reliable observation protocol. These findings have important implications for the design of elementary science learning environments and associated research and development efforts in the field.     

Further Development and Validation of the Teaching Science as Inquiry (TSI) Instrument

The purpose of this study was to further develop and validate the Teaching Science as Inquiry (TSI) Instrument, an instrument designed to measure the self‐efficacy beliefs of preservice teachers in regards to the teaching of science as inquiry. Based on the validation processes and the associated data analysis, the TSI demonstrates continued content and construct validity with high internal reliability when used with prospective elementary science teachers.     

Proper path‐factors and interval edge‐coloring of (3,4)‐biregular bigraphs

An interval coloring of a graph G is a proper coloring of E(G) by positive integers such that the colors on the edges incident to any vertex are consecutive. A (3,4)‐biregular bigraph is a bipartite graph in which each vertex of one part has degree 3 and each vertex of the other has degree 4; it is unknown whether these all have interval colorings. We prove that G has an interval coloring using 6 colors when G is a (3,4)‐biregular bigraph having a spanning subgraph whose components are paths with endpoints at 3‐valent vertices and lengths in {2, 4, 6, 8}. We provide several sufficient conditions for the existence of such a subgraph. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Graph Theory     

Analysis of Environmental and General Science Teaching Efficacy Among Instructors with Contrasting Class Ethnicity Distributions: A Four‐Dimensional Assessment

The context and nature of teacher efficacy beliefs provide a method upon which to explore science teachers' perceptions of their teaching effectiveness and student achievement as a function of ethnicity. Promotion of a more in‐depth knowledge of science teaching efficacy requires cross‐sectional and longitudinal investigations. In this study, a bi‐disciplinary four‐dimensional assessment is utilized to measure personal teacher efficacy, outcome expectancy, classroom management (CM), and student engagement (SE). Major findings from this study conclude that science teaching efficacy was markedly lower for science teachers with high minority class ethnicity distribution (CED) when compared with efficacy levels of teachers with high nonminority CED. Additionally, when examining efficacy dimensions separately, markedly lower mean efficacy dimension responses were consistent for teachers with high minority CED; however, only CM and SE were considered statistically different. Results were consistent for both the environmental and general science disciplines.