Optimization of preparation procedure of LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TLD for improving the reusability

Several thermal treatments in the temperature range from 270 °C to 320 °C (each of 10 min) were tested as a final preparation procedure of LiF:Mg,Cu,Si to improve the protocol of TL readout with less residual signal for the LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TLD. This high sensitivity LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TLD exhibited thermal stability much better than that of the well known LiF:Mg,Cu,P. For LiF:Mg,Cu,Si, a readout temperature up to 300 °C did not affect the TL sensitivity and glow curve structure for 12 cycles of exposure and readout following an initial thermal treatment at 295 °C for 10 min. The residual TL signal also remained negligible.     

Environmental gamma-ray dose rate measurement by using ultra-high sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TLD

Environmental gamma-ray dose rates were measured by using ultra-high sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,Si thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) during short-term burial. The resultant gamma-ray dose rates were compared with those measured by using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) of Al₂O₃:C and assessed by using HPGe spectrometer. Regardless of the short-term burial and the change of environmental conditions as well as the mismatch of the effective atomic number (Z_eff) with the soil (mainly SiO₂), good agreement was observed between the doses measured by TLDs and OSL dosimeters or the assessed doses. LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TLD has been found to be an effective alternative for the measurement of environmental gamma-ray annual dose rates for use in optical dating.     

Performance comparison of OSLD (Al2O3:C) and TLD (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) in accreditation proficiency testing

The U.S. Navy uses a dosimetric system, which employs the LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs), developed and produced by Thermo Fisher Scientific. Every two years, the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) performs proficiency testing to maintain its national accreditation. Since 2007, the U.S. Navy has also tested InLight Basic - OSLN Optically Stimulated Luminescence Al₂O₃:C dosimeters (OSLD) manufactured by Landauer. In 2011 and 2013, the Naval Dosimetry Center performed proficiency testing for both systems. Here we present a comparison of the performance of TLDs (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) and OSLDs (Al₂O₃:C) in five categories of proficiency testing. The testing included irradiation with photons, neutrons, beta particles and selected mixtures of these radiations. All irradiations were performed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). The delivered doses were not reported to the NDC. The official comparison of delivered and reported doses was conducted by PNNL in terms of dose bias and its standard deviation for each category of accreditation. In total, the NDC reported to the PNNL doses for 147 dosimeters of each type (TLD and OSLD). Both NDC tested dosimetric systems have passed established limits. The comparison of OSLD and TLD system performance in each category is discussed. Advantages and disadvantages of both systems are analyzed.     

Newly developed highly sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,Si TL discs with good stability to heat treatment

The preparation method and some dosimetric properties of the new LiF:Mg,Cu,Si discs are presented. The effect of heat treatments on LiF:Mg,Cu,Si was investigated. The shape of the glow curve for LiF:Mg,Cu,Si is similar to that for standard LiF:Mg,Cu,P (GR-200A), and shows minimal differences when annealed in the range from 260 °C to 290 °C for 10 min. The TL sensitivity for LiF:Mg,Cu,Si is much lower than that for GR-200A, but is 35 times larger than that for TLD-100 and is slightly higher than that for HMCP. The height of the high-temperature peaks for LiF:Mg,Cu,Si is not only lower than that for GR-200A, but also lower than that for HMCP. The glow curve shape of LiF:Mg,Cu,Si annealed at 260 °C for different times shows minimal differences and TL response remains stable. These results indicate that the new LiF:Mg,Cu,Si disc has a good stability to thermal treatments and a lower residual TL signal.     

敏化LiF(Mg,Ti)热释光剂量片γ射线响应特性

敏化LiF(Mg, Ti)热释光剂量片（LiF(Mg, Ti)-M TLD）是用于强脉冲辐射场剂量测量的主要探测器。对国内4个厂家生产的敏化LiF(Mg, Ti)热释光剂量片进行了射线响应的一致性、重复性和线性的比较研究, 测量了射线辐照后4种敏化LiF(Mg, Ti)热释光剂量片试验样品的吸收剂量读数平均值及标准偏差, 比较了4种样品在不同吸收剂量下的灵敏度及其变异系数, 并获得了超出线性上限的大剂量辐照对剂量片线性响应特性的影响规律。研究结果表明, 北京防化研究院生产的剂量片性能最优, 试验样品在吸收剂量为6 Gy(Si)时读数变异系数为3.11%, 重复性指标在5%以内, 线性响应上限在50~100 Gy(Si)之间。吸收剂量为150 Gy(Si)并退火后再次使用时的灵敏度漂移幅度约为11%。     

Feasibility study of CaSO4:Eu,CaSO4:Eu,Ag and CaSO4:Eu,Ag(NP) as thermoluminescent dosimeters

This work evaluates the dosimetric properties of crystals of CaSO₄ doped with unusual elements, such as europium (Eu) and silver (Ag), including their nanoparticle forms, after the incorporation of glass or Teflon and compares them with well-known thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD). X-ray diffraction analyses showed that samples of doped CaSO₄ exhibit only a single phase corresponding to the crystal structure of anhydrite. Optical spectroscopy confirmed the presence of Eu³⁺ in the crystal matrix and a luminescent gain due the presence of silver nanoparticles. The composites showed thermoluminescent emission glow curves, with a single peak centered at approximately 200 °C for pellets with Teflon and at 230 °C for pellets with glass. The dosimeters based on calcium sulfate doped with europium and silver nanoparticles provided the most intense thermoluminescent (TL) emission of the composites studied. In comparison with commercial TLD, such as LiF:Mg,Ti and CaSO₄:Dy, the CaSO₄:Eu,Ag(NP)+glass produced in this work presented similar low detection limits and higher sensitivity. The new methods for the preparation of dosimeters and the incorporation of glass are shown to be viable because all of the samples presented a linear, reproducible and first order kinetic TL emission.     

Relative thermoluminescent efficiency of LiF detectors for proton radiation: Batch variability and energy dependence

The available experimental data on the relative thermoluminescent efficiency of the LiF:Mg,Ti dosimetric peaks for protons are contradictory. There are several reports showing that the efficiency exceeds unity by even more than 30%, however, many others show the efficiency close to unity or even lower. These contradictory data might be a result of the real variability of TLD properties or of not perfectly reproduced experimental conditions.In an attempt to resolve this issue, the efficiency of 16 batches of LiF:Mg,Ti (MTS) detectors for 60 MeV protons produced at the IFJ Kraków over the last 20 years was measured. All values of the relative TL efficiency were found to exceed unity significantly, with an average of 1.09. Dispersion between different batches was very low, all data were within 4% of the mean value.In second part of experiment the dependence of the relative efficiency of LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P detectors on proton energy was determined. The efficiency for LiF:Mg,Ti dosimetric peaks was found to have a maximum of 1.20 at about 20 MeV. For LiF:Mg,Cu,P the relative efficiency decreases systematically with decreasing proton energy, from 0.96 at 56 MeV, to 0.61 at 11 MeV.     

Reconstruction of a 6-MeV bremsstrahlung spectrum by multi-layer absorption based on LiF:Mg,Cu, P

In this paper, TLD （LiF： Mg, Cu, P） is used as detector. A multi-layer absorption （MLA） model is designed. Combined with Monte-Carlo processes, a bremsstrahlung X-ray spectrum is reconstructed by an iterative method; the reconstructed results agree with the results of simulations by the MCNP process essentially, especially in middle energy region.     

Clinical tests of large area thermoluminescent detectors under radiotherapy beams

Two-dimensional (2D) thermoluminescence (TL) dosimetry systems based on LiF:Mg,Cu,P, together with the newly developed, based on CaSO4:Dy, were tested under radiotherapy beams. The detectors were irradiated in a water phantom with 6 MV X-ray beams from linac and read with a dedicated TLD reader. Dose distributions of differently shaped fields and of a full stereotactic plan were measured and compared with planned distributions.Maximum distance-to-agreement (DTA) in the penumbra region was 1 mm for both LiF:Mg,Cu,P and CaSO4:Dy TL sheets, for all the measured fields. Maximum percentage dose difference (DA%) between planned and measured dose value in low dose gradient regions was up to 11% for LiF:Mg,Cu,P TL sheets and 18% for CaSO4:Dy TL sheets. Concerning the full stereotactic plan, the percentage of points with γ-index below 1 is 54.9% for the LiF:Mg,Cu,P-based foil and 96.9% for the CaSO4:Dy TL sheets. Both 2D TL detector types can be considered to be a promising tool for bi-dimensional dose measurements in radiotherapy. Non-homogeneity, presumably due to the TL sheets manufacture, still affects dosimetric distribution and the agreement between planned and measured distributions may depend on the chosen sample.     

Long term study of Harshaw TLD LiF – LLD and uncertainty

Long term study of Harshaw TLD LiF has been performed in this work. The study is carried out over a period of 24 months at storage temperatures of 0 °C, 20 °C and 40 °C using more than 3500 dosimeters. The length and variations of this study may be the most comprehensive study published to date. The dosimeters are HarshawTLD LiF based cards and extremity dosimeters, which include LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P materials in their different isotopes, sizes and forms. There are three parts in this study: material fade in sensitivity and in signal; lower limit of detection (LLD) and uncertainty; and glow curve peaks and sensitivity change over 24 months. Part I was presented at the SSD15 (15th International Conference on Solid State Dosimetry) in Delft. This paper is the continuous work focused on Part II – the lower limit of detection and uncertainty analysis. The detailed results of each case are provided.     

Relative efficiency of TL detectors to energetic ion beams

The relative TL efficiency of LiF:Mg, Ti and LiF:Mg, Cu, P was evaluated for several ion beams, ranging from helium to xenon ions. Irradiations were realized at the HIMAC accelerator in Chiba, Japan, partly within the ICCHIBAN intercomparison project. The covered LET range was extending from about 2 keV/μm to 1500 keV/μm.Both tested TLD types exhibited a decrease of relative response with increasing ionization density – stronger for LiF:Mg,Cu,P detectors. The relationship between efficiency and LET was found to follow unique trend lines, as nearly all data points lied within 5% around the fitted empirical functions. Values of TL efficiency measured for various batches of same type TLDs agree within a few percent. The measured relationships between relative TL efficiency and LET will be used in the analysis of data obtained from space dosimetric experiments.     

A model for distinguishing between static and dynamic exposure of personal thermoluminescence dosimeters

To distinguish between static and dynamic (normal) exposure of personal TL dosimeters, a model of radiation deposition and of TL light transport in the TLD dosimeter is proposed. The RADOS dosimeter badge using MCP-N (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) TL detectors with standard filters replaced by special Pb and Cu filters with a pattern of holes or inserts was modelled. The photon radiation transport in the dosimeter and energy deposition in the TL detector were simulated by the Penelope Monte Carlo transport code. The model of TL light transport within the TL pellet takes into account the distribution of energy deposition in the TL detector, light self-absorption in the detector and reflection of TL light of the heating planchet. The shape and hole pattern of the filters were optimized with respect to best distinction between static and dynamic exposures. The results of calculations were verified experimentally by exposing RADOS badges with modified filters to beams of low energy X-rays directed at various angles.     

Influence of cosmic radiation spectrum and its variation on the relative efficiency of LiF thermoluminescent detectors – Calculations and measurements

Lithium fluoride thermoluminescent detectors (TLD) were used for cosmic radiation dosimetry already in early 1960s. Since that time they have been constantly applied in numerous space missions for personal dosimetry, area monitoring, phantom measurements and dosimetry for biological experiments. The relative efficiency of TLDs, defined as the ratio of their response to a given radiation and to a reference radiation, is not constant, but depends on ionization density. This raises a question about the relative efficiency of TLDs exposed to the complex cosmic radiation spectrum encountered in Earth's orbit, which consists of a variety of particles, including heavy ions, the spectrum of which covers an extremely broad energy range. The present work is an attempt to find an answer to this question.The particle energy spectra were calculated for realistic flight conditions of the International Space Station (ISS). The calculation of the Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) component was based on the input spectra generated with the DLR model for solar minimum (2009) and solar maximum (2000) conditions. Contributions of trapped protons were estimated based on the AP8 model for solar minimum and maximum taking into account the altitude variations of the ISS. The interactions of the primary particles with the ISS were simulated with GEANT4 using a shielding geometry derived from the mass distribution of the Columbus Laboratory of the ISS and several constant aluminum shieldings. The calculated spectra were convoluted with the experimental data on the relative TL efficiency measured for ions ranging from H to Xe at various particle accelerators for two commonly applied TL-materials, namely LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P.The results showed the differences in the average TL-efficiency for these two TL-materials. For LiF:Mg,Ti the relative efficiency is within a few percent from unity for any of the analyzed values of shielding, altitude and solar cycle conditions. This means that one can assume cosmic radiation doses measured in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with LiF:Mg,Ti detectors to be correct within such uncertainty. LiF:Mg,Cu,P underestimates the cosmic radiation doses by more than 15% in all cases. Altitude and solar cycle were found to have a very weak influence on the TL efficiency. In contrast, the influence of shielding thickness is quite significant. The reason for this is a change of contributions of radiation field components: trapped protons dominate at low shielding (97% of dose at 1 g/cm²), but are negligible above 60 g/cm², as well as changes within GCR spectrum (increase of dose due to lower LET secondaries for higher shielding). Shielding thickness affects both TLD types in different ways: the efficiency of LiF:Mg,Cu,P increases with increasing shielding thickness, while the efficiency of LiF:Mg,Ti shows some fluctuations, with a weak minimum for 60 g/cm². The response ratio of these TLDs decreases monotonically with the shielding thickness and could be used as an indicator for the average shielding conditions in which the TLDs were exposed.     

Assessment of undesirable dose to eye-melanoma patients after proton radiotherapy

Radiotherapy with a proton beam of initial energy 55–80 MeV is presently the clinically recommended therapy for some cases of intraocular melanoma such as large melanomas or tumours adjacent to critical organs. Evaluation and optimization of radiation doses outside the treatment volume may contribute to reducing undesirable side-effects and decreasing the risk of occurrence of secondary cancers, particularly for paediatric patients. In this work the undesired doses to organs were assessed basing on Monte Carlo calculation of secondary radiation transport and on results of measurements of neutron and γ-ray doses at the proton therapy facility of the Institute of Nuclear Physics at Kraków. Dosimetry was performed using a He-3-based FHT 762 neutron monitor (Wendi II), a FH40G proportional counter (for γ-rays), and MTS-7 (LiF:Mg,Ti) thermoluminescence detectors (TLDs). Organ doses were calculated in the ADAM anthropomorphic phantom using the MCNPX Monte Carlo transport code and partly verified, for γ-ray doses, with TLD measurements in the RANDO Anderson anthropomorphic phantom. The effective dose due to undesired radiation, including exposure from scattered radiation during the entire process of proton radiotherapy and patient positioning using X-rays, does not exceed 1 mSv.     

Laser assisted thermoluminescence dosimetry using temperature controlled linear heating

We have developed a non-contact laser–fiberoptic system for thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) measurements. The system is based on: (i) linear heating of a TLD sample by a CO₂ laser beam; (ii) measuring the sample's temperature, using infrared thermometry and (iii) using a feedback loop, for controlling the heating rate. The infrared thermometry was carried out, using infrared transmitting AgClBr fibers. The system made it possible to obtain linear heating at slow rates (e.g. 5 °C/s), or fast rates (up to 60 °C/s), or even to obtain non-linear heating. Measurements on LiF TLD samples revealed excellent linearity between the doses, to which the samples had been exposed, and the amplitudes of the measured glow curve peaks, over a wide range of doses. Our results were highly reproducible, which clearly demonstrated the potential of laser heated thermoluminescence for accurate dosimetry.     

A study on thermal degradation of LiF:Mg,Cu,P and LiF:Mg,Cu,Si

We investigated the thermal degradation of LiF:Mg,Cu,P (NTL-250) and LiF:Mg,Cu,Si (MCS) for the development of TL sheet. By thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC), the exothermic reaction was observed between 320 °C and 400 °C in MCS as well as NTL-250. The heat value of MCS was twice as large as that of NTL-250. This ratio corresponded with that of Mg amount in these TL materials measured by ICP-OES (inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry). X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were also carried out, and the peaks of MgF₂ phase were also observed in degraded MCS sample as well as NTL-250. Moreover, X-ray absorption near-edge structures (XANES) of Cu in these LiF TLDs were measured. The valences of Cu did not change before and after degradation. It indicates that the thermal degradation is caused by not Cu but Mg ion state change. The exothermic reaction is possible caused by the stabilization reactions, and then it was expected to correspond with MgF₂ precipitation. From these results, we concluded that the thermal degradations of these LiF TLDs are caused by the precipitation of MgF₂.     

Characterization of the Risø TL/OSL DA-20 reader for application in TL dosimetry

The automated Risø TL/OSL Reader Model DA-20, often used in dating and retrospective dosimetry, was examined for possible applications in thermoluminescent dosimetry related to radiation protection. The investigations revealed that performance of the DA-20 is comparable with that of the Harshaw 3500 manual reader, which was used as a reference instrument. All studied parameters, like stability, reproducibility, low-dose measuring capabilities, were at the same level or only somewhat inferior to those of Harshaw 3500. In particular, using the highly-sensitive LiF:Mg,Cu,P dosimeters, it is possible to measure doses at the microgray level.The DA-20 reader possesses built-in alpha and beta sources, which cause an increased radiation background. At positions just under the closed sources the dose-rate rises to about 50 μGy/h. When the ⁹⁰Sr/⁹⁰Y source is open a quite high dose-rate of 100 mGy/h was measured at the position adjacent to the one being irradiated. Additionally the TLD response to the background radiation significantly depends on the TLD type (atomic number), as the radiation leaking through shielding is composed of low-energy photons. The dose-rate under the closed ²⁴¹Am source was over 10 times higher, when measured with CaF₂ dosimeters, than with LiF.In spite of these problems, the DA-20 reader due to its good stability, reproducibility and sensitivity, combined with such obvious benefits as a 48-dosimeter carousel, temperatures up to 700 °C and full automatics of measurements control, encourages the opinion that the DA-20 Risø reader can be successfully used in practical dosimetric measurements.     

快中子堆n，γ混合场中γ光子注量的测量研究

用热释光探测器对快堆堆外n,γ混合场进行了区分测量，结果表明：该方法可有效的检测出n,γ混合场的γ成分；为了更较精确地测量快堆n，γ混合场γ光子注量，提出了采用新配方的热释光探测器LiFTLD(6LiF,７LiF各占50%)与6LiFTLD成对使用的方法.考虑到LiFTLD对中子吸收剂量的响应存在LET效应，对LiF(Mg,Cu,P)TLD进行了中子响应的LET效应因子RLET的实验测定(RLET≈005)，在此基础上，对６LiF 7LiFTLD的成对使用测量快中子堆的n,γ混合场中光子注量的方法进行了实验研究.实验结果表明，混合场中的中子在7LiF(Mg,Cu,P)中产生的热释光量(TL)占n,γ产生的总TL的81%—171%.实验结果表明该方法是行之有效的.为钝化中子谱的不确定性所致的影响，进一步提高γ光子注量测量结果的精度，提出了采用新配方的LiFTLD(6LiF,7LiF各占50%)与6LiFTLD成对使用测量快堆n,γ混合场γ光子注量的方法.     

Radio-photoluminescence of highly irradiated Lif:Mg,Ti and Lif:Mg,Cu,P detectors

The radio-photoluminescent (RPL) characteristics of LiF:Mg,Ti (MTS) and LiF:Mg,Cu,P (MCP) thermoluminescent detectors, routinely used in radiation protection dosimetry, were investigated after irradiation with ultra-high electron doses ranging up to 1 MGy. The photoluminescence of both types of LiF detectors was stimulated by a blue light (460 nm) and measured within a spectral window around 530 nm. The RPL dose response was found to be linear up to 50 kGy and sublinear in the range of 50 kGy to 1 MGy for MCP detectors and linear up to 3 kGy and next sublinear in the range from 5 kGy to 1 MGy for MTS detectors. For both type of LiF detectors RPL signal is saturated for doses higher than 100 kGy. The observed differences between MCP and MTS may suggest, that the RPL effect in LiF is not entirely governed by intrinsic defects (F₂ and F₃⁺ centers), but dopants may also have a significant influence. Due to the non-destructive character of the RPL measurement, it is suggested to apply combined RPL/TL readouts, what should improve accuracy of high-dose dosimetry.