共轭体系的分类及结构特征

共轭体系是相邻原子或基团的电子轨道发生重叠,电子发生离域运动、体系能量降低、键长平均化的结构单元,具有独特的电子效应——共轭效应。共轭效应是有机化学课程的重点和难点内容,掌握共轭体系的分类及结构特征,对理解化合物的共轭效应以及物理化学性质具有重要作用。但一般的有机化学教材及文献对此没有系统的介绍。本文通过实例、价键(valence bond, VB)理论以及分子轨道(molecular orbital, MO)理论中的电子轨道示意图,阐明广义和狭义共轭体系的内涵,以及狭义共轭体系、超共轭体系、价键共轭与空间共轭的分类和结构特征。     

共轭效应的本质及其在有机反应中的特殊性

共轭效应是有机化学中特别重要的电子效应之一,存在于共轭体系之中;大学有机化学教学目标要求学生掌握并能熟练应用共轭效应理论解决有机化学中的实际问题。由于共轭效应涉及微观认知,学生普遍感觉不易理解。但作为教学重点与难点,又必须掌握;同时也是学生大学毕业后继续深造学习所必须的基础理论知识,理解、掌握并能熟练应用该理论知识解决有机化学中的学习问题显得尤为重要。本文采用密度泛函理论方法计算并给出了3个二烯烃分子轨道中最高占据分子轨道(HOMO)、最低空分子轨道(LUMO)结构图,揭示了共轭体系内部因存在电荷转移现象而产生电子云的平均化本质,表现在键参数中的键长平均化变化。     

共轭效应的本质及其在有机反应中的特殊性

共轭效应是有机化学中特别重要的电子效应之一,存在于共轭体系之中;大学有机化学教学目标要求学生掌握并能熟练应用共轭效应理论解决有机化学中的实际问题。由于共轭效应涉及微观认知,学生普遍感觉不易理解。但作为教学重点与难点,又必须掌握;同时也是学生大学毕业后继续深造学习所必须的基础理论知识,理解、掌握并能熟练应用该理论知识解决有机化学中的学习问题显得尤为重要。本文采用密度泛函理论方法计算并给出了3个二烯烃分子轨道中最高占据分子轨道(HOMO)、最低空分子轨道(LUMO)结构图,揭示了共轭体系内部因存在电荷转移现象而产生电子云的平均化本质,表现在键参数中的键长平均化变化。     

有机化学教学中使用共振式描述超共轭效应的探索

有机化学教学中通常使用分子轨道理论和价键理论中的共振论来描述π轨道的共轭效应,而对于类似的σ轨道的超共轭效应,通常只用轨道理论来描述,而基本不采用价键理论中的共振式描述。尝试用共振式来描述σ键的超共轭效应,发现不仅能够获得清晰易懂的图像,还能将有机化学中多个跨章节的知识点联系在一起,有利于知识的融会贯通,以及对电子结构和共振论的深入理解。     

烃分子中碳碳键长的变化

键长是反映有机物结构和性质的一个重要参数,同一类型的共价键的键长在不同的化合物中稍有差别,但正是这些差别反映出许多值得探讨的问题。本文将通过分析脂肪烃分子中碳原子的杂化形式对碳—碳单键的影响,进一步讨论键长平均化同共轭效应、芳香性等的关系。对某些传统的观点提出了异议。     

石墨炔结构及性能的理论研究

石墨炔作为一种新的稳定的碳同素异形体, 由于其独特的结构和性能, 预计可广泛地应用于纳米材料及器件中.在本文中, 我们采用B3LYP/6-31+G*理论研究了其结构参数、Wiberg键级以及芳香性. 计算结果表明, 所有的碳原子的p-电子参与形成了非定域的π-键, 使得所有C—C键长平均化. 苯环的核独立化学位移比乙炔形成的不等边六边形的更负, 表明苯环的芳香性更强. 该化合物的拓扑性质与Wiberg键级的计算结果也一致. 另外, 该化合物的LUMO (0.27 eV)带宽大于其HOMO (0.24 eV)的带宽, 表明它应该是n-型材料. 当采用对称性破缺方法重新对该化合物优化后, 计算结果显示该化合物含有3.6个未成对电子, 并具有一定的化学反应活性.     

π-σ轨道作用能分解法和限制π轨道作用的几何优化*

简要地介绍能量分解法的发展历史,强调能量分解的特点是给量子化学的计算提供明确的化学意义,介绍本实验室建立的能量分解法和限制轨道作用的几何优化法。 在这两个方法的基础上,论证了π-电子离域是失稳定的;颠倒了经典有机结构理论中基本的因果关系——共轭效应和构象之间的因果关系;为芳香能的计算提供了一个新的模型和新的方法,表明芳香能的计算不再需要参考分子;定量地区别静电作用和电子离域在化学键形成中的作用;定量地讨论取代基效应和张力芳环的扭曲驱动力。     

交联聚苯乙烯-二乙烯基苯与丙烯腈的辐照接枝

聚苯乙烯系列的树脂颗粒有很强的耐辐照性,采用预辐照法所需剂量很大。苯环有共轭π结构,它的π电子是非定域的,辐射时苯基吸收的能量虽然足以使键断裂,但由于能量很快在整个分子重新分布,把能量集中于某一键使其断裂几率是很低的,所以采用预辐照接枝法所需的吸收剂量很大,相关     

杂苯C5H5X（X=N,P,As,Sb,Bi）芳香性的核独立化学位移（NICS）与异构体稳定化能（ISE）研究

应用量子化学方法,通过核独立化学位移(NICS)和异构体稳定化能(ISE)的计算,研究了苯及第五主族元素取代杂苯分子C5H5X(X=N,P,As,Sb,Bi)的芳香性与稳定性.局域轨道定位函数局部最大值的计算结果表明,分子中C—X成键强度与实验稳定性顺序一致.从头算与密度泛函理论对分子的化学位移计算结果各异,计算值与实验值相关分析表明,Hartree-Fock方法对所研究体系的NICS比密度泛函理论具有更好的相关性.在分子环平面上方0.8～0.9处的NICS是芳香性判据的最佳选择,由自然定域分子轨道分解NICS最大处的zz张量值,结果显示π键对分子的芳香性起主要贡献.异构体稳定化能与NICS(max)的zz张量及π键(NICS(max)zzπ)均有很好的相关性,可以表征杂苯分子C5H5X全局芳香性,其顺序为:苯>吡啶>磷杂苯>砷杂苯>锑杂苯>铋杂苯.特别地,对这类分子π轨道的研究发现不包含X原子的π轨道将产生异常大的π键芳香性,这一现象可为分子磁性设计提供理论指导.     

锇杂苯的电子结构及芳香性

使用密度泛函理论及片段轨道相互作用分析方法,研究了典型的锇杂苯的电子结构和芳香性.结果表明,锇碳六员环具有较好的环平面性及键的离域性,占据的锇dxz轨道与碳环的3π空轨道之间的反馈π键相互作用,使得环上离域π电子数满足Hückel的4n+2规则,计算的环外质子化学位移、同键反应芳香性稳定化能、绝对硬度和磁化率增量数据均表明锇杂苯具有芳香性.     

Anionic hyperconjugation

Although hyperconjugation involving alkyl groups to a carbocation is a well-established concept, the analogous charge delocalization generated in anions by electronegative substitution has long been a subject of controversy. We have investigated this phenomenon for the β-hydroxyethyl and β-trifluoroethyl anions using ab initio electronic structure calculations. Split valence basis sets augmented by diffuse functions were used with fully optimized geometries. Three dimensional molecular orbital plots clearly show an in-plane HOMO-LUMO mixing of a C-X σ antibonding orbital with the carbon lone pair which yields hyperconjugative π bonding in the anti conformation. Deformation density maps further demonstrate that this delocalization leads to the development of a π component as well as a previously unrecognized sigma enhancement. These results support and extend the work of Apeloig and that of Schleyer and Kos, but are in opposition to the induction hypothesis of Streitwieser and Holtz. The recent experimental determination of the acidity of (CF₃)₃CH by Tatlow $\text{et al}$ and their interpretation in terms of fluorine hyperconjugation are also in accord with this work.     

DFT能量分解和氮苄叉基苯胺分子π电子离域能的研究

为了探索密度泛函理论(DFT)方法中氮苄叉基苯胺分子π电子离域的本质, 介绍了将非平面分子氮苄叉基苯胺分子的DFT能量分成π和σ的方法, 并将π和σ电子能量分成单电子能部分: 动能ΔEπK(θ), ΔEσK(θ)和位能ΔEπP(θ), ΔEσP(θ); 双电子相互作用部分: 库仑作用ΔEππJ(θ), ΔEσσJ(θ), ΔEπσJ(θ)和交换相关作用ΔEππXC(θ), ΔEσσXC(Δ)以及ΔEπσXC(θ), 分析了垂直离域能ΔEV的稳定性及π电子离域对π和σ体系的影响. 在B3LYP/6-31G*, 6-311G*, 6-31G(2d), 6-311G(2d)水平下的计算结果表明, 与经典观点不同, π电子的离域是失稳定的, 且平面时失稳定性最强; 分析各个能量分量表明, 在π电子的离域过程中, π和σ体系均对基组较敏感, π体系本身单电子能的影响大于σ体系, π电子离域对双电子部分作用的影响主要体现在π-σ的耦合作用上.     

有机化学基本理论问题新的研究方法、新的观念和新 的思维模式

有机化学基本理论研究的总结和回顾。15年来,在国家自然科学基金委员会的支持下,为了认识电子离域的本质,在量子化学领域,我们建立和发展了新的作用能分解方法和大型计算程序,发展和完善了轨道定域化程序。我们的方法可以为任何一个共轭分子(无论是平面的还是非平面的,是含共轭双键的还是含累积双键的),提供一个π与σ体系彻底分离的片断分子轨道基组。这个轨道基组不仅满足分子特殊的对称性,而且还具有确切的电子占据数。与Hückel理论完全不同,我们强调：π电子的离域除了对它原先的定域π体系有强烈的失稳定作用外,它还可通过π-σ空间作用,对σ构架产生强烈的稳定作用。据此,我们提出了芳环化合物新的分类准则,揭示了芳香环流起因的必要条件,定义环的刚度为芳香性一个新判据。发现,分子内基团间的局部作用(CT和EX)同它们对分子整体性能的影响是完全相反的。就构象而言,稳定的CT作用是相斥的,失稳定的EX作用是相吸的;就电子转移而言,大的EX作用是电荷转移的助动力。其助动性在于,它能降低因CT作用而产生的给体自身对电荷转移的阻力。论证了,在二苯乙烯类分子中,π-π共轭,π-σ超共轭和σ-σ非键轨道作用都是失稳定的。与σ-σ和π-σ作用相比,π-π作用对于分子构像的影响是非常微弱的。与经典的思维模式相反,有机分子总是倾向于较小的失稳定,而不是较大的稳定。为了维持尽可能最稳定的电子总能量,在σ-σ作用的驱动下,共轭基团应该尽量地偏离共平面。阻止分子扭曲的(非电子作用力)是核排斥力。因此,一个空间拥挤的构象可以是能量有利的构象。在我们的研究中,经典有机结构理论的整体因果关系已经全面地被颠倒。     

The role of quantum-mechanical interference and quasi-classical effects in conjugated hydrocarbons

The nature of the chemical bond in conjugated hydrocarbons is analyzed through the generalized product function energy partitioning (GPF-EP) method, which allows the calculation of the quantum-mechanical interference and quasi-classical contributions to the energy. The method is applied to investigate the differences between the chemical bonding in conjugated and non-conjugated hydrocarbon isomers and to evaluate the contribution from the energy components to the stabilization of the molecules. It is shown that in all cases quantum-mechanical interference has the effect of concentrating π electron density between the two carbon atoms directly involved in the (C-C)π bonds. For the conjugated isomers, this effect is accompanied by a substantial reduction of electron density in the π space of the neighbouring (C-C)σ bond. On the other hand, quasi-classical effects are shown to be responsible for the extra stabilization of the conjugated isomers, in which a decrease of the π space kinetic reference energy seems to play an important role. Finally, it is shown that the polarization of p-like orbitals in compounds with alternating single and double bonds ultimately increases electron density in the π space of the neighbouring (C-C)σ bond. Therefore, quasi-classical effects, rather than covalent ones, seem to be responsible for several properties of conjugated molecules, such as thermodynamic stability, planarity and (C-C)σ bond shortening. The shortcomings of the delocalization concept are discussed.     

Guanidinium-Type resonance stabilization and its biological implications. 2. The doubly-extended-guanidine series

π-Electron delocalization in neutral and protonated “doubly-extended-guanidine,” (H₂N)₂C?N? CH?N—CH?NH, has been studied by ab initio methods at the self-consistent field (SCF) STO -3G and 3-21G levels for a large number of tautomeric, rotameric, pseudocyclic, and monocyclic (disubstituted triazine) forms. These π systems have been characterized in terms of a number of structural and energetic parameters: degree of single/bond character from bond lengths and π bond orders, electron distributions, and tautomer, rotamer, and protonation energies. The acyclic neutral forms exhibit largely alternant single–double bond patterns as predicted by classical bonding structures but with, however, significant deviations due to conjugation. The acyclic protonated forms exhibit bond patterns consistent with resonance delocalized structures extending over the whole molecule (“doubly-extended guanidinium”) or part of the molecule (“extended-guanidinium”) or guanidinium . All systems showed alternant charge distributions with electron-deficient carbons. The energy results have been analyzed in terms of possible contributions from steric interactions, lone-pair repulsions, purportive electrostatic interactions in pseudocyclic forms, overall π-system conformation (extended, kinked, or folded), and specific through-space π-overlap interactions in some pseudocyclic forms. It was found that these other interactions usually dominate the specifically π effects so that the general concept of preferential π delocalization in straight lines does not hold for the acyclic systems. Some interesting examples of pseudocyclic forms exhibiting strongly stabilizing intramolecular interactions attributed to π through-space coupling are identified. These systems with incipient-ring characteristics present intermediate bonding models between the acyclic and closed-ring π systems. The extent of stabilization of the guanidinium-type cations by resonance delocalization in cyclic systems depended on whether it reinforced or interfered with the overall ring delocalization.     

Does antiaromaticity imply net destabilization?

An analysis is presented of the results of earlier ab initio computational studies of cyclobutadiene, cyclooctatetraene, and 1,4-dihydropyrazine. The first and third of these are normally categorized as antiaromatic. All three molecules are polyenes, even when the last two are forced into planar conformations. There is no driving force for extensive π delocalization, even when it would appear to have been facilitated. Calculated isodesmic energies show a net destabilization only in the case of cyclobutadiene, which we attribute to strain and repulsion between the π electrons of the C?C double bonds. The other two molecules have negative isodesmic energies, indicative of net stabilizing effects. We conclude that the concept of antiaromaticity is useful for identifying molecules that resist the apparent opportunity for extensive © delocalization, but that it does not intrinsically imply net destabilization. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

氮氧自由基的研究(Ⅱ)——哌啶类氮氧自由基的溶剂效应及其分子结构的研究

对4-氧-2,2,6,6-四甲基哌啶-1-氧自由基在26种不同溶剂中的顺磁共振谱进行了测定,发现超精细分裂常数A_N随溶剂极性的增加而上升,而g值却呈现微小的下降趋势。A_N与ReichardtE_T、KosowerZ值之间有线性关系,而与ε、μ却不呈现线性关系。由于E_T、Z为模型反应的溶剂微观极性效应参数,而ε、μ为非模型反应的溶剂宏观极性效应参数,所以A_N可以作为一种新的非模型反应的溶剂微观极性效应参数。     

Oxatriphyrins(2.1.1) Incorporating an ortho‐Phenylene Motif

An understanding of fundamental aspects of archetypal organic structural motifs remains a key issue faced by the experimental and theoretical chemists. Two possible bonding modes for a disubstituted benzene ring, that is a meta and para, determines the π delocalization for oligomeric structures. When the less abundant ortho‐substituted variant is introduced into a triphyrin(2.1.1) skeleton an aromatic molecule is obtained and the carbocyclic ring participates in the conjugation of the macrocycle. The two‐electron reduction and introduction of boron(III) changes the aromatic character and results in an anti‐aromatic structure which has been confirmed by single‐crystal analysis and supported by theoretical calculations.     

The possible covalent nature of N-H...O hydrogen bonds in formamide dimer and related systems: an ab initio study

The N-H...O hydrogen bonds are analyzed for formamide dimer and its simple fluorine derivatives representing a wide spectrum of more or less covalent interactions. The calculations were performed at the MP2/6-311++G(d,p) level of approximation. To explain the nature of such interactions, the Bader theory was also applied, and the characteristics of the bond critical points (BCPs) were analyzed: the electron density at BCP and its Laplacian, the electron energy density at BCP and its components, the potential electron energy density, and the kinetic electron energy density. These parameters are used to justify the statement that some of the interactions analyzed are partly covalent in nature. An analysis of the interaction energy components for the systems considered indicates that the covalent character of the hydrogen bond is manifested by a markedly increased contribution of the delocalization term relative to the electrostatic interaction energy. Moreover, the ratio of stabilizing the delocalization/electrostatic contributions grows linearly with the decreasing lengths of the hydrogen bond.     

Chemical graph theory and n-center electron delocalization indices: a study on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Relations between aromaticity indices derived from chemical graph theory and those based on 6-center electron delocalization are investigated for a series of polybenzenoid hydrocarbons. Aromatic stabilization obtained by means of the effective scaled electron delocalization is highly correlated to the resonance energy, RE, obtained both from SCF MO calculations and conjugated ring circuits model. Local aromaticity of benzene rings is discussed using two different criteria, in one of them aromaticity is just given by the cyclic pi-electron conjugation of the ring, whereas terms involving more than one ring are also considered in the other one. Indices derived from chemical graph theory and those obtained from the 6-center electron delocalization give rise to the same local aromaticity. Moreover, 6-center electron delocalization provides more quantitative information.