Surface plasmon polariton waveguides with subwavelength confinement

Surface plasmon polaritons(SPPs) are evanescent waves propagating along metal-dielectric interfaces, which provide an effective way to realize optical wave guiding with subwavelength confinement. Metallic nanostructures supporting SPPs,that is, plasmonic waveguides, are considered as required components to construct nanophotonic devices and circuits with a high degree of miniaturization and integration. In this paper, various types of plasmonic waveguides operating in the visible, infrared, and terahertz regions are reviewed, and the status of the research on their fundamentals, fabrications,and applications is provided as well. First, we discuss the mechanisms of SPPs beyond the diffraction limit, and their launching methods. Then, the characteristics of SPPs on various plasmonic waveguides are reviewed, including top-down and bottom-up fabricated types. Considering applications, certain prototypes of plasmonic devices and circuits constructed by plasmonic waveguides for bio/chemo sensing, router, and light modulation are demonstrated. Finally, a summary and future outlook of plasmonic waveguides are given.     

Nanowire plasmonic waveguides,circuits and devices

As typical one‐dimensional nanostructures for waveguiding tightly confined optical fields beyond the diffraction limit, metal nanowires have been used as versatile nanoscale building blocks for functional plasmonic and photonic structures and devices. Metal nanowires, especially those fabricated by bottom‐up synthesis such as Ag and Au nanowires, usually exhibit excellent diameter uniformity and surface smoothness with diameters down to tens of nanometers, which offers great opportunities for plasmonic waveguiding of optical fields with deep‐subwavelength confinement, coherence maintenance and low scattering losses. Based on nanowire plasmonic waveguides, a variety of applications ranging from plasmonic couplers, interferometers, resonators to photon emitters have been reported in recent years. In this article, significant progresses in these nanowire plasmonic waveguides, circuits and devices are reviewed. Future outlook and challenges are also discussed.     

Ultra compact hybrid plasmonic–photonic coupler: configuration of metal–silica–silicon

In this work, a novel and practical configuration as a hybrid plasmonic–photonic coupler based on silicon (Si) nanofibers, silica waveguides and metal nanoparticles is examined and investigated. All of utilized waveguides, fibers and nanoparticles are embedded in an \(\hbox {Mg}_{2}\hbox {F}\) crystal host. Integrated plasmonic–photonic coupler provides significant transmission efficiency during guiding and propagating of light. Utilizing enhanced plasmonic waveguides helps to reduce the inherent losses such as scattering into the far-field and absorption of optical power inside the employed components, especially in nanoparticles. The transmission loss component under transverse electric excitation (TE) for the superstructure has been calculated as approximately \(\gamma _{T}=3\,\hbox {dB}/675\)  nm. Also, we investigate the coupling efficiency at overlapping regions between Si nanofibers and silica ( \(\hbox {SiO}_{2})\) waveguides which is referred to near-field interactions. Transmitted power ratio and the group velocity of the propagated light are computed and depicted for the proposed coupler.     

Dielectric‐loaded plasmonic waveguide components: Going practical

Surface plasmon propagating modes supported by metal/dielectric interfaces in various configurations can be used for radiation guiding similarly to conventional dielectric waveguides. Plasmonic waveguides offer two attractive features: subdiffraction mode confinement and the presence of conducting elements at the mode‐field maximum. The first feature can be exploited to realize ultrahigh density of nanophotonics components, whereas the second feature enables the development of dynamic components controlling the plasmon propagation with ultralow signals, minimizing heat dissipation in switching elements. While the first feature is yet to be brought close to the domain of practical applications because of high propagation losses, the second one is already being investigated for bringing down power requirements in optical communication systems. In this review, the latest application‐oriented research on radiation modulation and routing using thermo‐optic dielectric‐loaded plasmonic waveguide components integrated with silicon‐based photonic waveguides is overviewed. Their employment under conditions of real telecommunications is addressed, highlighting challenges and perspectives.     

Tunable coupling of a hybrid plasmonic waveguide consisting of two identical dielectric cylinders and a silver film

The propagation length of surface plasmon polaritons(SPPs) is intrinsically limited by the metallic ohmic loss that is enhanced by the strongly confined electromagnetic field. In this paper, we propose a new class of hybrid plasmonic waveguides(HPWs) that can support long-range SPP propagation while keeping subwavelength optical field confinement. It is shown that the coupling between the waveguides can be well tuned by simply varying the structural parameters. Compared with conventional HPWs, a larger propagation length as well as a better optical field confinement can be simultaneously realized. The proposed structure with better optical performance can be useful for future photonic device design and optical integration research.     

Asymmetric plasmonic-dielectric coupler with short coupling length, high extinction ratio, and low insertion loss

Asymmetric directional coupling between a hybrid plasmonic waveguide with subwavelength field confinement and a conventional dielectric waveguide is investigated. The proposed hybrid coupler features short coupling length, high coupling efficiency, high extinction ratio, and low insertion loss; it can also be integrated into a silicon-based platform. This coupler can be potentially adopted for signal routing between plasmonic waveguides and dielectric waveguides in photonic integrated circuits. Furthermore, it can be exploited to efficiently excite hybrid plasmonic modes with conventional dielectric modes.     

Ultracompact plasmonic racetrack resonators in metal-insulator-metal waveguides

Among various plasmonic waveguides, the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) type is the most promising for true subwavelength photonic integration. To date, many photonic devices based on MIM waveguides have been investigated, including resonators. However, most of the reported MIM ring resonators suffer from low extinction ratios and the reasons are unexplored in the literature. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of the underlying causes of the low performance of MIM ring resonators, and give the analytical transmission relation for a universal all-pass ring resonator with coupling loss. Based on the analysis we propose plasmonic racetrack resonators in MIM waveguides and show that the performance can be greatly improved.     

Metal-dielectric-metal plasmonic waveguide devices for manipulating light at the nanoscale Invited Paper

We review some of the recent advances in the development of subwavelength plasmonic devices for ma- nipulating light at the nanoscale, drawing examples from our own work in metal-dielectric-metal (MDM) plasmonic waveguide devices. We introduce bends, splitters, and mode converters for MDM waveguides with no additional loss. We also demonstrate that optical gain provides a mechanism for on/off switch- ing in MDM plasmonie waveguides. Highly efficient compact couplers between dielectric waveguides and MDM waveguides are also introduced.     

深亚波长约束的表面等离子体纳米激光器研究

本文提出了一种新颖的基于半导体纳米线/空气间隙/金属薄膜 复合结构的表面等离子体纳米激光器, 并给出了理论研究和仿真分析. 这种结构通过金属界面的表面等离子体模式与高增益介质纳米线波导模式耦合, 从而使场增强效应得到显著提高. 同时通过数值仿真研究, 得到该混合波导结构的模式特性和增益阈值随空气槽宽度、纳米线半径的变化规律, 表明它可以实现对输出光场的深亚波长约束, 同时保持低损耗传输和高场强限制能力. 通过最优化选择, 最终得到纳米等离子体激光器的最优结构尺寸. 关键词： 表面等离子体 混合等离子体波导 纳米激光器     

All-dielectric bowtie waveguide with deep subwavelength mode confinement

Plasmonic waveguides and conventional dielectric waveguides have favorable characteristics in photonic integrated circuits. Typically, plasmonic waveguides can provide subwavelength mode confinement, as shown by their small mode area, whereas conventional dielectric waveguides guide light with low loss, as shown by their long propagation length. However, the simultaneous achievement of subwavelength mode confinement and low-loss propagation remains limited. In this paper, we propose a novel design of an alldielectric bowtie waveguide, which simultaneously exhibits both subwavelength mode confinement and theoretically lossless propagation. Contrary to traditional dielectric waveguides, where the guidance of light is based on total internal reflection, the principle of the all-dielectric bowtie waveguide is based on the combined use of the conservation of the normal component of the electric displacement and the tangential component of the electric field, such that it can achieve a mode area comparable to its plasmonic counterparts. The mode distribution in the all-dielectric bowtie waveguide can be precisely controlled by manipulating the geometric design. Our work shows that it is possible to achieve extreme light confinement by using dielectric instead of lossy metals.     

Optimizing performance of plasmonic devices for photonic circuits

We demonstrate the feasibility of fabricating thermo-optic plasmonic devices for variable optical attenuation and/or low-frequency (kHz) signal modulation. Results of finite-element simulations and experimental characterization of prototype devices indicate that a plasmonic device can reach specifications similar to or better than commercially available thermo-optic integrated optical components. Specifically, we have considered the insertion loss, power consumption, footprint, polarization-dependent loss, extinction ratio, and frequency response of the plasmonic devices, in addition to fabrication and material-related issues. The most serious fabrication challenge is to realize metallic nanowire waveguides with a sufficiently accurate cross-section to ensure low polarization-dependent loss at high extinction ratios.     

Direct laser-writing of dielectric-loaded surface plasmon–polariton waveguides for the visible and near infrared

We demonstrate flexible and low-cost fabrication of dielectric-loaded surface plasmon–polariton waveguides. The waveguide structures are fabricated by two-photon polymerization of commercially available, spin-coatable epoxy-based UV-lithographic resist on a metal covered glass slide. The excitation and guiding properties of the plasmonic waveguides are investigated in the far-field at a wavelength of 632.8 nm by imaging the leakage radiation from the waveguide modes. The optimum bending radius for right angle bends is measured to 6 μm providing a transmission of up to 70%. The functionality of more complex Y-splitters is demonstrated.     

Reducing crosstalk between nanowire-based hybrid plasmonic waveguides

Hybrid plasmonic waveguides based on a surface oxidized dielectric nanowire placed on a metal surface can facilitate simultaneously deep subwavelength mode confinement and large propagation length. Directional coupling based on such waveguides are theoretically investigated. Much lower crosstalk is noticed for such hybrid plasmonic waveguides compared to conventional waveguides based on bare dielectric nanowires. Some modifications, such as vertically placing the metal surfaces or using a metallic block between the nanowires, are studied which can further reduce the crosstalk between two waveguides. The proposed low crosstalk structures based on hybrid plasmonic waveguides can provide a simple platform for plasmonic integration which can at the same time easily interface with traditional photonic circuits.     

银纳米线表面等离激元波导的能量损耗

金属纳米结构的表面等离激元可以突破光学衍射极限,为光子器件的微型化和集成光学芯片的实现奠定基础.基于表面等离激元的各种基本光学元件已经研制出来.然而,由于金属结构的固有欧姆损耗以及向衬底的辐射损耗等,表面等离激元的传输能量损耗较大,极大地制约了其在纳米光子器件和回路中的应用.研究能量损耗的影响因素以及如何有效降低能量损耗对未来光子器件的实际应用具有重要意义.本文从纳米线表面等离激元的基本模式出发,介绍了它在不同条件下的场分布和传输特性,在此基础上着重讨论纳米线表面等离激元传输损耗的影响因素和测量方法以及目前常用的降低传输损耗的思路.最后给出总结以及如何进一步降低能量损耗方法的展望.表面等离激元能量损耗的相关研究对于纳米光子器件的设计和集成光子回路的构建有着重要作用.     

Surface-plasmon-assisted guiding of broadband slow and subwavelength light in air

A class of axially uniform waveguides is introduced, employing a new mechanism to guide light inside a low-index dielectric material without the use of photonic band gap, and simultaneously exhibiting subwavelength modal size and very slow group velocity over an unusually large frequency bandwidth. Their basis is the presence of plasmonic modes on the interfaces between dielectric regions and the flat unpatterned surface of a bulk metallic substrate. These novel waveguides allow for easy broadband coupling and exhibit absorption losses limited only by the intrinsic loss of the metal.     

有机-无机复合ZrO2-SiO2平面光波导

采用溶胶-凝胶法合成ZrO2-SiO2有机一无机复合光波导材料,通过改变其中ZrO2的含量来调节材料的折射率,使材料分别适用于平面光波导的导光层(ng≈1．497)和衬底层、包层(mb=nc≈1．479)。采用旋转涂膜工艺和相应的热处理,在单晶硅基片上制备衬底层、导光层和包层等薄膜,其中导光层介质因具有感光性而可通过紫外光刻来制备光路图案。所得有机一无机复合ZrO2-SiO2板型平面光波导(衬底层 导光层),用棱镜耦合截断法测试其光损耗在632．8nm波长处约为0．8dB／cm。对板型平面波导的导光层薄膜进行紫外光刻和异丙醇淋洗,制备出脊状光波导通道,在覆盖包层后,即获得埋层沟道式平面光波导。采用端耦合截断法测试了埋层沟道式平面光波导的光损耗(小于0．1dB／cm),并观察了其近场图像以及导光材料在近红外窗口的吸收光谱。     

X-junctions in buried channel waveguides

The excess loss across an acute-angle symmetric X-junction composed of two weakly guiding single-mode buried channel waveguides of square core cross-section is shown to be very small provided the junction angle is greater than a few degrees. Numerical and approximate analytical results are presented, as well as a simple criterion for the onset of cross-talk as the junction angle decreases.     

Transmission characteristics in plasmonic multimode waveguides

In this article, we examine spectral transmission characteristics based on the self-imaging effect in plasmonic multimode waveguides. For the analysis, we calculate the correlation between an input field and the field in the self-imaging plane. We perform full vectorial computations using the Method of Lines as numerical method. The resulting transmission profile is discussed with regards to the attenuation, the even and odd mode sets and for several structural parameters of the plasmonic waveguide. The introduced transmission characteristic may offer the opportunity for the implementation of filtering operations in plasmonic waveguides.     

Radiation field propagation in low-contrast single-mode optical waveguides

In short waveguides used in integrated optical circuits, the radiation field is often present in the guiding region of a waveguide as well as the guided modes. We show that this can be investigated efficiently by extracting the radiation part from the total input field and simulating its evolution along the waveguide by use of the beam propagation method. The results are presented for a single-mode waveguide and a waveguide junction excited by a Gaussian beam. For a noncentred excitation, a considerable fraction of the radiation power is still in the guiding region after propagation over several tens of micrometres, and can be coupled to guided modes past the junction.     

Circular arc plasmonic waveguide couplers between two-dimensional dielectric slab waveguides and plasmonic waveguides

We investigate the properties of arc plasmonic waveguide coupler between two-dimensional dielectric slab waveguides and plasmonic waveguides with two-dimensional finite difference time domain methods. The simulation results show that transmission efficiency between high index dielectric slab waveguides with width 300 nm and silver-air-silver waveguides with width 40 nm connected by the coupler can reach to 90.4% at optical communication wavelength. And, by optimizing the shapes near the ends of the coupler, the transmission efficiency can be improved to 98.4%.