Colloidal assemblies of branched geminis studied by cryo-etch-HRSEM. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy

Cryo-etch-HRSEM is introduced as a useful method for exploring colloidal systems. The method fast freezes an aqueous sample (to -105 degrees C in 6-7 ms), removes some or all of the surface water by sublimation (etching), and magnifies the resulting colloidal structure by up to a million. Three new structurally similar gemini surfactants served to illustrate the technique. One gemini formed a gel whose delicate fractal-like molecular web could be observed after 10-min etching. A second formed a coacervate with a more hydrated porous structure. The third displayed a "bumpy" surface consistent with spherical vesicles projecting from the vitreous ice. The information-content of cryo-etch-HRSEM is pictorial but distinctive in nature.     

Inhibition of mannitol crystallization in frozen solutions by sodium phosphates and citrates

Effects of co-solutes on the physical property of mannitol and sorbitol in frozen solutions and freeze-dried solids were studied as a model of controlling component crystallinity in pharmaceutical formulations. A frozen mannitol solution (500 mM) showed a eutectic crystallization exotherm at -22.8 degrees C, whereas sorbitol remained amorphous in the freeze-concentrated fraction in the thermal scan. Various inorganic salts reduced the eutectic mannitol crystallization peak. Trisodium and tripotassium phosphates or citrates prevented the mannitol crystallization at much lower concentrations than other salts. They also raised transition temperatures of the frozen mannitol and sorbitol solutions (T(g)': glass transition temperature of maximally freeze-concentrated amorphous phase). Crystallization of some salts (e.g., NaCl) induced crystallization of mannitol at above certain salt concentration ratios. Thermal and near-infrared analyses of cooled-melt amorphous sorbitol solids indicated increased intermolecular hydrogen-bonding in the presence of trisodium phosphate. The sodium phosphates and citrates should prevent crystallization of mannitol in frozen solutions and freeze-dried solids by the intense hydrogen-bonding and reduced molecular mobility in the amorphous phase.     

Glass-state amorphous salt solids formed by freeze-drying of amines and hydroxy carboxylic acids: effect of hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions

We studied effect of molecular interactions on the physical properties of binary freeze-dried solids and frozen aqueous solutions using model chemicals containing various functional groups (amino, carboxyl, hydroxyl). Thermal analysis of frozen solutions containing alkyl diamines and hydroxy di- or tricarboxylic acids showed thermal transitions (T(g)': glass transition of maximally freeze-concentrated phase) at temperatures higher than those of the individual solutes. A binary frozen solution containing 80 mM 1,3-diamino-2-hydroxypropane (single-solute T(g)'<-60 degrees C) and 120 mM citric acid (single-solute T(g)': -55.0 degrees C) made the transition at -30.8 degrees C. The molecular weight of the solutes had smaller effects on the transition temperatures of the frozen mixture component solutions. Lyophilization of some high T(g)' mixture frozen solutions (e.g., 1,3-diamino-2-hydroxypropane and citric acid) resulted in cake-structure amorphous solids with glass transition temperatures (T(g)) higher than those of the individual components. Networking of intense hydrogen-bondings and electrostatic interactions between the heterogeneous molecules through the multiple functional groups was suggested to reduce the component mobility in the amorphous freeze-concentrated phase and the freeze-dried solids. Controlling the interactions should be a key to optimizing the physical properties of multi-component amorphous freeze-dried pharmaceutical formulations.     

Enhanced single strand breaks of supercoiled DNA in a matrix of gold nanotubes under X-ray irradiation

This work shows for the first time the potential of cobalt oxide silica (CoO(x)Si) membranes for desalination of brackish (1 wt.% NaCl), seawater (3.5 wt.% NaCl) and brine (7.5-15 wt.% NaCl) concentrations at feed temperatures between 25 and 75 °C. CoO(x)Si xerogels were synthesised via a sol-gel method including TEOS, cobalt nitrate hydrate and peroxide. Initial hydrothermal exposure (<2 days) of xerogels prepared with various pH (3-6) resulted in densification of the xerogel via condensation reactions within the silica matrix, with the xerogel synthesised at pH 5 the most resistant. Subsequent exposure was not found to significantly alter the pore structure of the xerogels, suggesting they were hydrostable and that the pore sizes remained at molecular sieving dimensions. Membranes were then synthesised using identical sol-gel conditions to the xerogel samples and testing showed that elevated feed temperatures resulted in increased water fluxes, whilst increasing the saline feed concentration resulted in decreased water fluxes. The maximum flux observed was 1.8 kg m(-2) h(-1) at 75 °C for a 1 wt.% NaCl feed concentration. The salt rejection was consistently in excess of 99%, independent of either the testing temperature or salt feed concentration.     

Simultaneous XRD-DSC measurements of water-2-propanol at sub-zero temperatures.

A simultaneous low-temperature X-ray powder-diffractometric (XRD)-DSC technique was applied to the solid state and melting process of frozen aqueous solutions of 2-propanol. 1H NMR spectra were also obtained at low temperatures. The chemical shifts of the CH3 proton and the CH proton can be classified into four temperature regions: higher than -20 degrees C, around -20 degrees C, -50 to -20 degrees C, and lower than -50 degrees C. In the XRD data, five small diffraction peaks for 2 theta at 21.0 degrees, 25.2 degrees, 27.8 degrees, 31.1 degrees and 32.1 degrees can be attributed to the peritectic, while five diffraction peaks at 22.5 degrees, 24 degrees, 25.6 degrees, 33.4 degrees and 39.8 degrees can be attributed to ice; these peaks are due to the hexagonal form of ice, which disappears upon melting. However, the diffraction peak at 33.4 degrees showed a different pattern than the other peaks due to hexagonal ice. These results indicate that the temperature dependence of the diffraction peak at 33.4 degrees for 2 theta is related to the formation of hydrogen bonds between 2-propanol and water. The simultaneous XRD-DSC technique was effective for investigating this water-alcohol mixture at low temperatures.     

Formation of gas-phase bromine from interaction of ozone with frozen and liquid NaCl/NaBr solutions: quantitative separation of surficial chemistry from bulk-phase reaction

The formation kinetics of gas-phase bromine (Br(2)) from interaction of gas-phase ozone (O(3)) with frozen and liquid solutions of NaCl (0.55 M) and NaBr (largely from 1.7 to 8.5 mM) have been studied from -40 to 0 °C in a coated-wall flow tube coupled to a chemical ionization mass spectrometer. The reactive uptake coefficient for O(3) is deduced from the product formation rate and then studied as a function of experimental conditions. In particular, for both the liquid and frozen solutions, we find that the uptake coefficient is inversely dependent on the gas-phase O(3) concentration in a manner that is quantitatively consistent with both surface- and bulk-phase kinetics. The reaction is fastest on acidic media (pH of the starting solution down to 2) but also proceeds at an appreciable rate on neutral substrates. Above 253 K, the uptake coefficient increases with increasing temperature on frozen solutions, consistent with an increasing brine content. The similarity of the absolute magnitude and form of the kinetics on the frozen and liquid substrates suggests that the reaction on the frozen solution is occurring with the associated brine, and not with the ice bulk or a quasi-liquid layer existing on the ice. The implications of these results to bromine activation in the tropospheric boundary layer are made.     

Photodecarbonylation of dibenzyl ketones and trapping of radical intermediates by copper(II) chloride in frozen aqueous solutions

This paper presents a quantitative and qualitative study of the Norrish type I reaction of dibenzyl ketone (DBK) and 4-methyldibenzyl ketone (MeDBK), producing the benzyl radicals and consequently recombination products, in frozen aqueous solutions over a broad temperature range (-80 to 20 degrees C). This work extends previous research on the cage effects in various constrained media to provide information about the dynamics and reactivity of the photochemically generated intermediates at the grain boundaries of ice matrix. As the temperature of aqueous solutions decreases, the solute concentrations become high at layers covering ice crystals, causing efficient molecular segregation. The cage effect experiments have shown that diffusion of the benzyl radicals within such reaction aggregates is still remarkably efficient at temperatures below -50 degrees C, independently of the initial ketone concentration in the range of 10(-6)-10(-4) mol L(-1). In addition, the study of trapping the benzyl radicals formed in situ by CuCl2 was used as a qualitative probe of heterogeneous bimolecular reactions in the frozen aqueous matrix and on its surface. Molecules of both solutes were found to be segregated from the ice phase to the same location and underwent chemical reactions within diffusion and intermediates lifetimes limits. Understanding the fundamental physicochemical processes in ice is unquestionably important in related environmental or cosmochemical investigations.     

Temperature requirements for thermal modulation in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography

Temperature requirements for trapping and release of compounds in a cryogenic gas loop-type GC x GC modulator were determined. Maximum trapping temperatures on the uncoated, deactivated modulator capillary were determined for compounds from C4 (bp -0.5 degrees C) to C40 (bp 522 degrees C). The liquid-nitrogen cooled gas flow rate was reduced from a high of 15.5 to 1.5 SLPM over the range to achieve the required trapping temperature. Excessive cold jet flow rates caused irreversible trapping and peak tailing for semi-volatile compounds above C26. Alternate cold jet coolants were investigated. An ice water-cooled jet was able to trap compounds with boiling points from C18 (bp 316 degrees C) to C40 and a room temperature air-cooled jet was able to trap compounds from C20 (bp 344 degrees C) to C40. The hot jet produced launch temperatures approximately 40 degrees C hotter than the elution temperature with heating time constants of 8 to 27 ms. Modulated compound peaks were symmetrical with half-height peak widths of 43 to 56 ms for compounds with little second column retention, and 70 to 75 ms for compounds with more second column retention. The liquid nitrogen-cooled loop modulator with gas flow programming was used to produce a GC x GC chromatogram for a crude oil that contained compounds from C7 to C47.     

Effects of sugars and polyols on the stability of azurin in ice

This study represents the first attempt to gain a quantitative estimate of the protective influence of sugars (sucrose and trehalose) and polyols (sorbitol and glycerol) on the thermodynamic stability (DeltaG degrees ) of a protein in low-temperature part-frozen aqueous solutions. The method, based on guanidinium chloride denaturation of the azurin mutant C112S from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, distinguishes between the effects of cooling to subfreezing temperatures from those induced specifically by the formation of a solid ice phase. The results point out that in the liquid state the generally stabilizing effect (at molar concentrations) of these polyhydric compounds is markedly attenuated on cooling to subfreezing temperatures such that at -15 degrees C, only sucrose still exerts a significant increase in DeltaG degrees . At this temperature, and in the absence of additives, the formation of ice caused a progressive destabilization of the native fold, DeltaG degrees decreasing up to 3-4 kcal/mol as the fraction of liquid water in equilibrium with ice (V(L) was reduced to less than 1%. Unexpectedly, denaturation profiles in ice at selected V(L) demonstrate that none of the above sugars and polyols counters effectively the decrease in protein stability at small V(L). Only trehalose was able to partly attenuate the ice perturbation, raising DeltaG degrees by a modest 0.6-0.8 kcal/mol relative to the salt reference. In all cases the reduction in DeltaG degrees caused by the solidification of water correlates with the decrease in m-value. The implication is that DeltaASA of unfolding is smaller in ice because protein-ice interactions either increase the solvent-accessible surface area (ASA) of the native fold (partial unfolding) or reduce the ASA of the denatured state (compaction), or both. Information on the protein tertiary structure in ice, in the absence and in the presence of sucrose or glycerol, suggests that these osmolytes play an important role in maintaining a compact native state that in their absence is expanded and partly unfolded. Thus, it appears that the prevailing mechanism by which these osmolytes act as cryoprotectants is through preservation of the native conformation in the liquidus rather than by increasing the thermodynamic stability of the native fold.     

Specific anions effects of on the stability of azurin in ice

This investigation represents a first attempt to gain a quantitative estimate of the effects of the anions sulfate, citrate, acetate, chloride and thiocyanate on the thermodynamic stability (DeltaG degrees) of a model globular protein in ice at -15 degrees C. The method, based on guanidinium chloride denaturation of the azurin mutant C112S from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, distinguishes between the effects of cooling to subfreezing temperatures from those induced specifically by the formation of a solid ice phase. The results confirm that, both in liquid and frozen states, kosmotropes (sulfate, citrate and acetate) increase significantly protein stability, relative to chloride, whereas the chaotrope thiocyanate decreases it. Throughout, their stabilizing efficacy was found to rank according to the Hofmeister series, sulfate>citrate>acetate>chloride>thiocyanate, although the magnitude of Delta(DeltaG degrees) exhibited a distinct sensitivity among the anions to low temperature and to ice formation. In the liquid state, lowering the temperature from +20 to -15 degreesC weakens considerably the stabilizing efficacy of the organic anions citrate and acetate. Among the anions sulfate stands out as the only strong stabilizer at subfreezing temperatures while SCN- becomes an even stronger denaturant. Freezing of the solution in the presence the "neutral" salt NaCl destabilizes the protein, DeltaG degrees progressively decreasing up to 3-4 kcal/mol as the fraction of liquid water in equilibrium with ice (VL) is reduced to less than 1%. Kosmotropes do attenuate the decrease in protein stability in ice although in the case of citrate and acetate, their efficacy diminishes sharply as the liquid fraction shrinks to below 2.7%. On the contrary, sulfate is remarkable for it maintains constantly high the stability of azurin in liquid and frozen solutions, down to the smallest VL (0.5%) examined. Throughout, the reduction in DeltaG degrees caused by the solidification of water correlates with the decrease in the denaturant m value, an indirect indication that protein-ice interactions generally lead to partial unfolding of the native state. It is proposed that binding of the kosmotropes to the ice interface may inhibit protein adsorption to the solid phase and thereby counter the ice perturbation.     

Cooperative hydration of pyruvic acid in ice

About 3.5 +/- 0.3 water molecules are still involved in the exothermic hydration of 2-oxopropanoic acid (PA) into its monohydrate (2,2-dihydroxypropanoic acid, PAH) in ice at 230 K. This is borne out by thermodynamic analysis of the fact that QH(T) = [PAH]/[PA] becomes temperature independent below approximately 250 K (in chemically and thermally equilibrated frozen 0.1 < or = [PA]/M < or = 4.6 solutions in D2O), which requires that the enthalpy of PA hydration (DeltaHH approximately -22 kJ mol(-1)) be balanced by a multiple of the enthalpy of ice melting (DeltaHM = 6.3 kJ mol(-1)). Considering that: (1) thermograms of frozen PA solutions display a single endotherm, at the onset of ice melting, (2) the sum of the integral intensities of the 1deltaPAH and 1deltaPA methyl proton NMR resonances is nearly constant while, (3) line widths increase exponentially with decreasing temperature before diverging below approximately 230 K, we infer that PA in ice remains cooperatively hydrated within interstitial microfluids until they vitrify.     

Fast thermal desorption spectroscopy study of H/D isotopic exchange reaction in polycrystalline ice near its melting point

Using fast thermal desorption spectroscopy, a novel technique developed in our laboratory, we investigated the kinetics of HD isotopic exchange in 3 microm thick polycrystalline H2O ice films containing D2O layers at thicknesses ranging from 10 to 300 nm at a temperature of -2.0+/-1.5 degrees C. According to our results over the duration of a typical fast thermal desorption experiment (3-4 ms), the isotopic exchange is confined to a 50+/-10 nm wide reaction zone located at the boundary between polycrystalline H2O and D2O ice. Combining these data with a theoretical analysis of the diffusion in polycrystalline medium, we establish the range of possible values for water self-diffusion coefficients and the grain boundary widths characteristic of our ice samples. Our analysis shows that for the grain boundary width on the order of a few nanometers, the diffusivity of D2O along the grain boundaries must be at least two orders of magnitude lower than that in bulk water at the same temperature. Based on these results, we argue that, in the limit of low concentrations of impurities, polycrystalline ice does not undergo grain boundary premelting at temperatures up to -2 degrees C.     

Fast thermal desorption spectroscopy study of morphology and vaporization kinetics of polycrystalline ice films

Fast thermal desorption spectroscopy was used to investigate the vaporization kinetics of thin (50-100 nm) H(2)O(18) and HDO tracer layers from 2-5 microm thick polycrystalline H(2)O(16) ice films at temperatures ranging from -15 to -2 degrees C. The isothermal desorption spectra of tracer species demonstrate two distinct peaks, alpha and beta, which we attribute to the vaporization of H(2)O(18) initially trapped at or near the grain boundaries and in the crystallites of the polycrystalline ice, respectively. We show that the diffusive transport of the H(2)O(18) and HDO tracer molecules in the bulk of the H(2)O(16) film is slow as compared to the film vaporization. Thus, the two peaks in the isothermal spectra are due to unequal vaporization rates of H(2)O(18) from grain boundary grooves and from the crystallites and, therefore, can be used to determine independently the vaporization rate of the single crystal part of the film and rate of thermal etching of the film. Our analysis of the tracer vaporization kinetics demonstrates that the vaporization coefficient of single crystal ice is significantly greater than those predicted by the classical vaporization mechanism at temperatures near ice melting point. We discuss surface morphological dynamics and the bulk transport phenomena in single crystal and polycrystalline ice near 0 degrees C.     

On the thermodynamic equilibrium between ice and electrolyte solutions in the conditions of confined geometry

For a small volume (of about 10⁻⁶ cm³) of NaCl and other electrolyte solutions (C = 0.1 and 1 M) in thin (r = 5/10 μm) single quartz capillaries, dependencies of the column length l of frozen solutions on the temperature t were measured using comparator IZA-2 in a thermostated chamber. At temperatures range t > −4 °C (for C = 0.1 M) and t > −8 °C (for C = 1 M) the l(t) dependencies are reversible and therefore correspond to establishment of an equilibrium between ice-1 and the solution.

From the constants mass condition of the dissolved salt in a frozen column, the l(t) expression was derived, which includes thermodynamic relation between solution concentration in an equilibrium with ice, C_s, and the temperature t for bulk systems. Deviations from the data known for bulk solutions were observed in thin capillaries when temperature t decreased to −3 °C (for 0.1 M NaCl) and to −6 °C for 1 M NaCl solution.

This effect may be a result of strong adhesion of the ice column to capillary walls. In this case, some internal stresses arise in frozen solution resulting in a deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium conditions for bulk systems. When approaching the temperature of ice melting, adhesion forces decrease due to formation of a thin non-freezing water interlayer on the capillary wall. In this temperature range the experimental data are in agreement with the predictions for bulk systems. It was supposed that the observed deviation in thin capillaries may be caused by formation of an amorphous ice phase with higher density as compared with the ice-1 during rapid freezing, or by an effect of ice microlenses formation. Both effects will result in a deviation from the phase diagram corresponding to a bulk solution.     

Adsorption-induced conformational changes of antifreeze glycoproteins at the ice/water interface

The conformation of antifreeze glycoprotein (AFGP) molecules adsorbed at the ice/water interface was studied by attenuated total reflection (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy. Measurements were carried out for AFGP/D2O solution films formed on the surface of an ATR prism as a function of temperature. Using the FTIR spectrum from the O-D stretching band of D2O molecules, we monitored the supercooled and frozen states of the film and measured the thickness of the quasi-liquid layer (QLL) at the ice/prism interfaces. The AFGP structure was determined for the liquid, supercooled, and frozen states of the solution film using the amide I band spectra. No noticeable differences in conformation were observed in the solution conformation from room temperature down to the 15 K supercooling studied, whereas the alpha-helical content of AFGP suddenly increased when the supercooled solution film froze at -15 degrees C. This change in conformation can increase the overall interaction between the AFGP molecules and ice surface and allow a stronger adsorption. In contrast, the alpha-helical content of AFGP in the frozen film gradually decreased with increasing temperature and finally returned to its solution-state level at the melting point of D2O ice. This gradual decrease in the alpha-helix content directly correlates with the measured increase in QLL thickness. Finally, we conclude that the differences in the alpha-helix signals between the frozen and supercooled states indicate the conformational change of AFGP molecules upon adsorption at the ice/water interface, emphasizing the importance of the structure-function relationship, even for this highly flexible antifreeze.     

Comparison of droplet flocculation in hexadecane oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by beta-lactoglobulin at pH 3 and 7

The influence of surface and thermal denaturation of adsorbed beta-lactoglobulin (beta-Lg) on the flocculation of hydrocarbon oil droplets was measured at pH 3 and compared with that at pH 7. Oil-in-water emulsions (5 wt % n-hexadecane, 0.5 wt % beta-Lg, pH 3.0) were prepared that contained different levels of salt (0-150 mM NaCl) added immediately after homogenization. The mean particle diameter (d43) and particle size distribution of diluted emulsions were measured by laser diffraction when they were either (i) stored at 30 degrees C for 48 h or (ii) subjected to different thermal treatments (30-95 degrees C for 20 min). In the absence of salt, little droplet flocculation was observed at pH 3 or 7 because of the strong electrostatic repulsion between the droplets. In the presence of 150 mM NaCl, a progressive increase in mean particle size with time was observed in pH 7 emulsions during storage at 30 degrees C, but no significant change in mean particle diameter with time (d43 approximately 1.4 +/- 0.2 microm) was observed in the pH 3 emulsions. Droplet aggregation became more extensive in pH 7 emulsions containing salt (added before thermal processing) when they were heated above 70 degrees C, which was attributed to thermal denaturation of adsorbed beta-Lg leading to interdroplet disulfide bond formation. In contrast, the mean particle size decreased and the creaming stability improved when pH 3 emulsions were heated above 70 degrees C. These results suggest that the droplets in the pH 3 emulsions were weakly flocculated at temperatures below the thermal denaturation temperature of beta-Lg (T < 70 degrees C) but that flocs did not form so readily above this temperature, which was attributed to a reduction in droplet surface hydrophobicity due to protein conformational changes. The most likely explanation for the difference in behavior of the emulsions is that disulfide bond formation occurs much more readily at pH 7 than at pH 3.     

Thermal analysis,state transitions and food quality

Thermal properties of food systems are important in understanding relationships between food properties and changes in food quality. Concentrated food systems (low-moisture and frozen foods) are seldom in an equilibrium state and they tend to form amorphous, non-crystalline structures. Several glass transition-related changes in such foods affect stability, e.g., stickiness and caking of powders, crispness of snack foods and breakfast cereals, crystallisation of amorphous sugars, recrystallisation of gelatinised starch, ice formation and recrystallisation in frozen foods and rates of non-enzymatic browning and enzymatic reactions. Relationships between glass transition, water plasticisation and relaxation times can be shown in state diagrams. State diagrams are useful as stability or quality maps and in the control of rates of changes in food processing and storage.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

How many amorphous ices are there?

Many acronyms are used in the literature for describing different kinds of amorphous ice, mainly because many different preparation routes and many different sample histories need to be distinguished. We here introduce these amorphous ices and discuss the question of how many of these forms are of relevance in the context of polyamorphism. We employ the criterion of reversible transitions between amorphous "states" in finite intervals of pressure and temperature to discriminate between independent metastable amorphous "states" and between "substates" of the same amorphous "state". We argue that the experimental evidence suggests we should consider there to be three polyamorphic "states" of ice, namely low-(LDA), high-(HDA) and very high-density amorphous ice (VHDA). In addition to the realization of reversible transitions between them, they differ in terms of their properties, e.g., compressibility, or number of "interstitial" water molecules. Thus they cannot be regarded as structurally relaxed variants of each other and so we suggest considering them as three distinct megabasins in an energy landscape visualization.     

Microscale fish bowls: a new class of latex particles with hollow interiors and engineered porous structures in their surfaces

Microscale fish bowls, hollow particles with engineered holes in their surfaces, were prepared using two different methods. In the first method, commercial latex beads suspended in water were swollen with a good solvent of the polymer, followed by freezing with liquid nitrogen and evaporation of the solvent below 0 degrees C. While one big hole was generated when the amount of solvent used for the swelling was relatively low, small holes could be produced in the outer surface of each bowl by increasing the degree of swelling. The porosity and pore structure show a similar dependence on the degree of swelling for both amorphous and semicrystalline polymers even though they are supposed to exhibit different phase behaviors during the freezing and solvent evaporation processes. In the second method, a polymer emulsion in water was prepared and then frozen with liquid nitrogen, followed by solvent evaporation below 0 degrees C. The porosity and pore structure could be controlled by adjusting the concentration of the polymer solution used to prepare the emulsion. As for encapsulation, the bowl-shaped particles could be transformed back into solid beads via thermal annealing at a temperature near the glass transition temperature of the polymer or by adding a good solvent of the polymer to the colloidal suspension. In a proof-of-concept experiment, microscale fish bowls were fabricated from poly(caprolactone), quickly loaded with a fluorescent dye, and sealed through thermal annealing. The encapsulated dye could then be slowly released in a phosphate buffered saline, suggesting their potential use as a new class of microscale capsules for drug delivery.     

Ice nucleation on BaF2(111)

The mechanism of heterogeneous ice nucleation on inorganic substrates is not well understood despite work on AgI and other materials over the past 50 years. We have selected BaF(2) as a model substrate for study since its (111) surface makes a near perfect match with the lattice of the basal face of I(h) ice and would appear to be an ideal nucleating agent. Two series of experiments were undertaken. In one, nucleation of thin film water formed from deposition of vapor on BaF(2)(111) faces was explored with the finding that supercooling to -30 degrees C was required before freezing occurred. In the other series, nucleation of liquid water on submerged BaF(2) crystals was studied. Here supercooling to -15 degrees C was needed before ice formed. The reason why BaF(2) is such a poor nucleating agent contains clues to realistic mechanisms of heterogeneous nucleation. Our explanation of these results follows the model of Fletcher [J. Chem. Phys. 29, 572 (1958)] who showed that heterogeneous ice nucleating ability depends on how well ice wets a substrate. In this view, a smooth BaF(2)(111) face is poor at nucleation because ice only partially wets its surface. In an extension of Fletcher's model, our calculations, consistent with the experimental results demonstrate that the pitting of a submerged BaF(2) crystal dramatically improves its ice nucleating ability.