Teaching-Learning of Evaluative Criteria for Mathematical Arguments Through Classroom Discourse: A Cross-National Study

Videotaped lessons of 5th graders on equivalent fractions from 7 American and 6 Japanese classrooms were analyzed in terms of a recurrent pattern in public discourse among a teacher and students. This pattern—called inquiry, response, feedback—occurs when a teacher initiates discourse (mostly with an inquiry), a student or students respond (often with an answer to the teacher inquiry), and the teacher provides feedback to the student's response. We found2 approaches to the teaching-learning of the criteria for evaluating mathematical arguments. In the Japanese classroom, students were encouraged to offer their own argument to the whole class and evaluate arguments proposed by other students. They seldom were given direct evaluation by their teacher. In contrast, American teachers often gave individual elaboration as well as direct evaluation to the student's responses, and some of the teachers offered their own opinions about mathematics, about valid ways of argumentation, or about both. The Japanese approach would help students acquire evaluative criteria indirectly through participating in mathematical discourse, whereas the American approach would help students learn modes of arguments through direct instruction.     

Teaching-Learning of Evaluative Criteria for Mathematical Arguments Through Classroom Discourse: A Cross-National Study

Videotaped lessons of 5th graders on equivalent fractions from 7 American and 6 Japanese classrooms were analyzed in terms of a recurrent pattern in public discourse among a teacher and students. This pattern—called inquiry, response, feedback—occurs when a teacher initiates discourse (mostly with an inquiry), a student or students respond (often with an answer to the teacher inquiry), and the teacher provides feedback to the student's response. We found2 approaches to the teaching-learning of the criteria for evaluating mathematical arguments. In the Japanese classroom, students were encouraged to offer their own argument to the whole class and evaluate arguments proposed by other students. They seldom were given direct evaluation by their teacher. In contrast, American teachers often gave individual elaboration as well as direct evaluation to the student's responses, and some of the teachers offered their own opinions about mathematics, about valid ways of argumentation, or about both. The Japanese approach would help students acquire evaluative criteria indirectly through participating in mathematical discourse, whereas the American approach would help students learn modes of arguments through direct instruction.     

The Effects of a Consumer Chemistry Intervention on Urban At‐Risk High School Students’ Performance,Utility Value,and Intentions to Pursue STEM

The main purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the degree to which a three‐week intervention in an urban high‐needs high school science classroom would influence students’ (n = 51) interest, utility value, content knowledge, and intentions for future study in chemistry. The intervention consisted of an authentic, inquiry‐based chemistry project where students worked cooperatively to investigate core chemistry concepts and connect them to real‐world consumer products and careers in manufacturing that required chemistry knowledge. Findings indicated that students improved their chemistry knowledge, found greater relevance for chemistry, and intend to take more chemistry in the future. Interest in chemistry did not statistically significantly increase as a result of the intervention; however, students’ interest levels remained consistently moderate from pre‐test to post. This study adds to the current body of literature in three ways. First, the intervention showcased positive outcomes with students from an urban, high‐needs high school who lacked motivation and academic proficiency in science. Second, using an authentic, inquiry‐based utility value intervention is a viable alternative to previous successful interventions that involved writing tasks. Finally, the study was the result of a high school teacher's advanced training in research where important evaluation skills were cultivated and advanced.     

Learning to teach science in urban schools: Context as content

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore how science teachers who persisted in urban schools interpreted and responded to the unique features of urban educational contexts. With 17 alumni who taught in metropolitan areas across seven states, the Science Educators for Urban Schools (SEUS) program provided a research setting that offered a unique view of science teachers’ development of knowledge of urban education contexts. Data sources included narratives of teaching experiences from interviews and open‐ended survey items. Findings were interpreted in light of context knowledge for urban educational settings. Findings indicated that science teaching in urban contexts was impacted by the education policy context, notably through accountability policies that narrowed and marginalized science instruction; community context, evident in teacher efforts to make science more relevant to students; and school contexts, notability their ability to creatively adjust for resource deficiencies and continue their own professional growth. Participants utilized this context knowledge to transform student opportunities to learn science. The study suggests that future science education research and teacher preparation efforts would benefit from further attention to the unique elements of urban contexts, specifically the out of classroom contexts that shape science teaching and learning.     

Relationships Between Inquiry‐Based Teaching and Physical Science Standardized Test Scores

This exploratory case study investigates relationships between use of an inquiry‐based instructional style and student scores on standardized multiple‐choice tests. The study takes the form of a case study of physical science classes taught by one of the authors over a span of four school years. The first 2 years were taught using traditional instruction with low levels of inquiry (non‐inquiry group), and the last 2 years of classes were taught by inquiry methods. Students' physical science test scores, achievement data, and attendance data were examined and compared across both instructional styles. Results suggest that for this teacher the use of an inquiry‐based teaching style did not dramatically alter students' overall achievement, as measured by North Carolina's standardized test in physical science. However, inquiry‐based instruction had other positive effects, such as a dramatic improvement in student participation and higher classroom grades earned by students. In additional inquiry‐based instruction resulted in more uniform achievement than did traditional instruction, both in classroom measures and in more objective standardized test measures.     

Constructing Elementary Teachers' Beliefs,Attitudes, and Practical Knowledge Through an Inquiry‐Based Elementary Science Course

This study examines inservice elementary school teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge toward inquiry‐based science instruction and the influence of an inquiry‐based elementary science course on teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge regarding inquiry. Both surveys and a case study were administered to the 14 elementary school teachers before and after completing a three‐credit elementary science methods course that was inquiry‐based. The findings showed that the teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge about inquiry were clearly influenced by the course. Through this course, the teachers developed fairly positive beliefs and attitudes that promoted inquiry instruction. The majority of participants also improved their knowledge and skills of conducting inquiry as they successfully practiced inquiry‐instruction in their science teachings.     

The Role of Teachers' Beliefs and Knowledge in the Adoption of a Reform‐Based Curriculum

Science as inquiry is a key content standard in the National Science Education Standards; however, few secondary science teachers successfully and consistently implement inquiry‐based instruction in their classrooms. This research examines the role of reform‐based curricular materials in influencing the classroom practices of 12 high school chemistry teachers and investigates the role of the teachers' knowledge and beliefs in their implementation of the reform‐based chemistry curriculum. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected in the form of beliefs interviews and classroom observations. The teachers' classroom practices were measured prior to and during the field test of the reform‐based chemistry curriculum. Analysis of the data revealed that teachers' classroom practice became more reform‐based in the presence of the new curriculum; however, the degree of change is related to the teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning, depth of chemistry knowledge, and years of teaching experience. Experienced, out‐of‐discipline teachers with transitional or student‐centered teaching beliefs demonstrated the most growth in reform‐based teaching practices. This study reinforces the need for reform‐based curriculum to assist teachers in implementing the intent of the National Science Education Standards.     

Promoting Equitable Biology Lab Instruction by Engaging All Students in a Broad Range of Science Practices: An Exploratory Study

This study examines what students enrolled in the honors and general sections of a high school biology course offered at the same school learn when they have an opportunity to participate in a broad or narrow range of science practices during their laboratory experiences. The results of our analysis suggest that the students enrolled in the general sections of the course made similar or larger gains than the students enrolled in the honors section of the course in their abilities to plan and carry out an investigation, argue from evidence, and write a science‐specific persuasive essay when these students had an opportunity to participate in a broad range of science practices. These findings suggest that laboratory experiences that give students an opportunity to participate in a broad range of science practices, although considered challenging by many teachers, have the potential to help all students become more proficient in science. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of this study for classroom instruction and educational policy.     

Science Talk: Preservice Teachers Facilitating Science Learning in Diverse Afterschool Environments

The purpose of this study was to assess the impact a community‐based service learning program might have on preservice teachers' science instruction during student teaching. Designed to promote science inquiry, preservice teachers learned how to offer students more opportunities to develop their own ways of thinking through utilization of an afterschool science program that provided them extended opportunities to practice their science teaching skills. Three preservice teachers were followed to examine and evaluate the transfer of this experience to their student teaching classroom. Investigation methods included field observations and semi‐structured, individual interviews. Findings indicate that preservice teachers expanded their ideas of science inquiry instruction to include multiple modes of formative assessment, while also struggling with the desire to give students the correct answer. While the participants' experiences are few in number, the potential of afterschool teaching experience serving as an effective learning experience in preservice teacher preparation is significant. With the constraints of high‐stakes testing, community‐based service learning teaching opportunities for elementary and middle‐school preservice teachers can support both the development and refinement of inquiry instruction skills.     

The Relationship of Teacher‐Facilitated,Inquiry‐Based Instruction to Student Higher‐Order Thinking

Commissions, studies, and reports continue to call for inquiry‐based learning approaches in science and math that challenge students to think critically and deeply. While working with a group of middle school science and math teachers, we conducted more than 100 classroom observations, assessing several attributes of inquiry‐based instruction. We sorted the observations into two groups based on whether students both explored underlying concepts before receiving explanations and contributed to the explanations. We found that in both math and science classrooms, when teachers had students both explore concepts before explanations and contribute to the explanations, a higher percent of time was spent on exploration and students were more frequently involved at a higher cognitive level. Further, we found a high positive correlation between the percent of time spent exploring concepts and the cognitive level of the students, and a negative correlation between the percent of time spent explaining concepts and the cognitive level. When we better understand how teachers who are successful in challenging students in higher‐order thinking spend their time relative to various components of inquiry‐based instruction, then we are better able to develop professional development experiences that help teachers transition to more desired instructional patterns.     

Aligning General Chemistry Laboratory With Lecture at a Large University

The laboratory and lecture components of general chemistry are commonly offered as two separate courses, with lecture typically meeting two or three times per week and laboratory scheduled to meet only once per week. The concepts, content, and relationships presented in lecture may be disjointed and asynchronous with respect to those encountered in laboratory experiments. In addition, traditional laboratory experiments tend to be confirmation labs, in which students are aware of the “right” answer before beginning the lab. Students enrolled in a specific lecture section do not necessarily meet for the same laboratory section. As such, learning experiences in laboratory do little to help the students construct an understanding of chemical concepts, content, or relationships. The goal of this project was to develop an inquiry‐based approach to curriculum and instruction in first‐semester general chemistry at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. A major objective of the project was to develop a laboratory curriculum that meshes intimately with lecture. This objective was accomplished by (a) creating a laboratory course that met for 80‐minutes twice a week immediately following the lecture, (b) involving students in laboratory experiments that related to the material presented during lecture, and (c) using laboratory observations and data in lecture to help students construct an understanding of chemical phenomena.     

Urban Third Grade Teachers' Practices and Perceptions in Science Instruction with English Language Learners

The study examined relationships among key domains of science instruction with English language learning (ELL) students based on teachers' perceptions of their classroom practices (i.e., what they think they do) and actual classroom practices (i.e., what they are observed doing). The four domains under investigation included: (1) teachers' knowledge of science content; (2) teaching practices to support scientific understanding; (3) teaching practices to support scientific inquiry; and (4) teaching practices to support English language development during science instruction. The study involved 38 third‐grade teachers participating in the first‐year implementation of a professional development intervention aimed at improving science and literacy achievement of ELL students in urban elementary schools. Based on teachers' self‐reports, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry and practices for English language development. Based on classroom observations in the fall and spring, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry, practices for English language development, and teacher knowledge of science content. However, we found a weak to non‐existent relationship between teachers' self‐reports and observations of their practices.     

Model‐Based Inquiry and School Science: Creating Connections

Much has been made in recent years of inquiry approaches to science education and the promise of such instruction to alleviate some of the ills of science education, yet in some ways this construct is still unclear to many in the field. In this paper we explore one view of inquiry in science that is based on the development, use, assessment, and revision of models and related explanations. Because modeling plays a central role in scientific inquiry it should be a prominent feature of students’ science education. We present a framework based on this view that can serve as a guide to curriculum development and instructional decision‐making with the goal of creating classroom environments that mirror important aspects of scientific practice. Specifically, the framework allows us to emphasize that scientists: engage in inquiry other than controlled experiments, use existing models in their inquiries, engage in inquiry that leads to revised models, use models to construct explanations, use models to unify their understanding, and engage in argumentation. Here, we discuss how these practices can be incorporated into science classrooms and illustrate that discussion with examples from our research classrooms.     

What we can learn from analyzing the teacher’s role in collective argumentation

In this paper, I use analyses of collective argumentation in a variety of classroom settings, from elementary school to a university-level differential equations class to illustrate various roles the teacher plays. These include initiating the negotiation of classroom norms that foster argumentation as the core of students’ mathematical activity, providing support for students as they interact with each other to develop arguments, and supplying argumentative supports (data, warrants, and backing) that are either omitted or left implicit. We gain two important insights from these analyses. First, an emphasis on argumentation can be used productively to provide openings in mathematical discussions for new mathematical concepts and tools to emerge. Second, the analyses demonstrate that teachers need to have both an in-depth understanding of students’ mathematical conceptual development and a sophisticated understanding of the mathematical concepts that underlie the instructional activities being used.     

Comparison of two alternative approaches to quality STEM teacher preparation: Fast‐track licensure and embedded residency programs

Alternative pathways to teaching licensure were developed to address teacher shortages. These programs differ widely, making it difficult to generalize the effects. This study compares the impact of two alternative licensure programs on the development of fundamental elements of science teacher preparation and persistence. The fast‐track programs include a 6‐month teacher preparation program and a one‐year residency teacher preparation program. The study concluded that licensure type was unassociated with the impact on teaching self‐efficacy, beliefs about teacher‐focused/student‐focused teaching, preferences for inquiry instructional practices, and experiences with student misbehavior. However, the study revealed that licensure type was associated with a number of other variables: residency students had more confidence in their ability to provide quality instruction; preferred inquiry‐based instruction more often; and may be better prepared for the high‐needs classroom. Those in the 6‐month program were more likely to score higher on practical versus theoretical approaches to teaching, and while they had a more realistic idea of how to measure success in the high‐needs classroom, the residency students had more knowledge of educational theory and how to apply it. Findings suggest that more traditionally licensed teachers may be more inclined to use inquiry‐based methods suggested in current reforms.     

An Examination of Teacher Understanding of Project Based Science as a Result of Participating in an Extended Professional Development Program: Implications for Implementation

Project‐based science (PBS) aligns with national standards that assert children should learn science by actively engaging in the practices of science. Understanding and implementing PBS requires a shift in teaching practices away from one that covers primarily content to one that prompts children to conduct investigations. A common challenge to PBS implementation is a misunderstanding of the elements of PBS. Identification of these misunderstandings as well as implementation challenges could inform professional development. This case study examined 24 teachers’ understanding and implementation of PBS during participation in a consecutive three‐year, comprehensive professional development program. Results provide insight as to the process they followed in the transition to implementing PBS. Measures included classroom observations, reflective interviews, and attitudinal surveys. Results showed that teachers developed the knowledge, confidence, and understanding to implement PBS but in most cases it took at least two to three years for positive results to become evident. Teachers struggled to develop adequate driving questions that provided project‐focused lessons. Other obstacles included teacher resistance to student‐directed instruction, confusing inquiry‐based instruction with hands‐on activities, and inability to motivate students to work in collaborative teams. While challenging, over time the teachers developed the knowledge, desire, and skills to implement PBS.     

Beginning Secondary Science Teachers' Conceptualization and Enactment of Inquiry‐Based Instruction

This study investigates the conceptions and use of inquiry during classroom instruction among beginning secondary science teachers. The 44 participants were beginning secondary science teachers in their first year of teaching. In order to capture the participants' conceptions of inquiry, the teachers were interviewed and observed during the school year. The interviews consisted of questions about inquiry instruction, while the observations documented the teachers' use of inquiry. All of the interviews were transcribed or coded in order to understand the conceptions of inquiry held by the teachers, and all of the observations were analyzed in order to determine the presence of inquiry during the lesson. The standard for assessing inquiry came from the National Science Education Standards. A quantitative analysis of the data indicated that the teachers frequently talked about implementing “scientific questions” and giving “priority to evidence.” This study found a consistency between the way new teachers talked about inquiry and the way they practiced it in their classrooms. Overall, our observations and interviews revealed that the beginning secondary science teachers tended to enact teacher‐centered forms of inquiry, and could benefit from induction programs focused on inquiry instruction.     

Science Conference Presenters’ Images of Inquiry

Inquiry‐focused professional development and conceptions of inquiry held by eight professional development leaders were investigated within the context of a state science teacher conference. The prominent session format involved session leaders modeling classroom experiences. In all sessions, classroom inquiry was portrayed as a teacher‐guided activity with the primary goal being to increase motivation for engaging students in classroom inquiry. The leaders’ conceptualized inquiry primarily as a teaching approach with various goals, characteristics, and potential barriers. The findings of this study provide evidence of how inquiry, a prominent feature of science education reform, was portrayed in sessions at a conference sponsored by a state affiliate of the National Science Teachers Association and thought about by persons who led these sessions. The findings have implications for teacher learning from conference‐based professional development and its potential influence on science teacher thinking and practice.     

Teachers' Understandings of Realistic Contexts to Capitalize on Students' Prior Knowledge

The theory of realistic mathematics education establishes that framing mathematics problems in realistic contexts can provide opportunities for guided reinvention. Using data from a study group, I examine geometry teachers' perspectives regarding realistic contexts during a lesson study cycle. I ask the following. (a) What are the participants' perspectives regarding realistic contexts that elicit students' prior knowledge? (b) How are the participants' perspectives of realistic contexts related to teachers' instructional obligations? (c) How do the participants draw upon these perspectives when designing a lesson? The participants identified five characteristics that are needed for realistic contexts: providing entry points to mathematics, using “catchy” and “youthful” contexts, selecting personal contexts for the students, using contexts that are not “too fake” or “forced,” and connecting to the lesson's mathematical content. These characteristics largely relate to the institutional, interpersonal, and individual obligations with some connections with the disciplinary obligation. The participants considered these characteristics when identifying a realistic context for a problem‐based lesson. The context promoted mathematical connections. In addition, the teachers varied the context to increase the relevance for their students. The study has implications for supporting teachers' implementation of problem‐based instruction by attending to teachers' perspectives regarding the obligations shaping their work.