3D modeling and testing of transient temperature in selective laser sintering (SLS) process

In the process of rapid prototyping by the method of selective laser sintering (SLS), transient temperature has direct effect upon the sintering performance. In the present work, a model is developed in order to generate 3D transient temperature field. It uses Al₂O₃ coated ceramic powder and involves the finite element method (FEM) variation of thermal properties and solid–liquid two-phase interface. A high-speed charge coupled device (CCD) image temperature measurement system is used to generate for testing. The obtained test results validates the simulation data and implies that the proposed modeling method is useful in simulating the transient sintering temperature specially when the correct thermal properties and key factors of two-phase interface are main concerns. The performance characteristics of the reasonable sintering parameters are predicted by the proposed modeling method.     

Research on measurement method of selective laser sintering (SLS) transient temperature

During selective laser sintering (SLS), transient temperature has direct effect on prototyping mechanism and quality. The infrared thermograph non-contact testing method is proposed in this paper. The testing results are compared with numerical simulation results. The results indicate that the on-the-spot survey trend agrees with the simulation trend, and the proposed method provides a steady experimental base for selecting sintering parameters and calculating thermophysical parameters reasonably.     

Multiphase Polymeric Materials for Rapid Prototyping and Tooling Technologies and Their Applications

Rapid prototyping (RP) and tooling (RT) are the technologies for quickly fabricating functional components and tooling inserts directly from CAD data by selectively adding material layer by layer. In this paper, multiphase polymeric materials for RP and RT technologies and their applications, which are developed by the Rapid Manufacturing (RM) Center of Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST) in China, were introduced. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a powder-based RP process. Multi-types of multiphase polymer materials for SLS process were successfully developed in the RM center, and the SLS components were formed from these materials by using the commercial SLS machines HRPS series for various applications. High impact polystyrene (HIPS)/wax blend SLS parts were used as lost patterns for the investment casting process to make complex metal parts rapidly; nylon-12/organically modified rectorite and nylon-12/nanosilica composite powders were used to fabricate functional parts, which showed higher thermal and mechanical properties than neat nylon-12 SLS parts. As a RT application, Fe/epoxy composite tooling inserts were rapidly fabricated by SLS and post-processing. Stereolithography (SLA) uses photocurable resins to rapidly manufacture components with high accuracy and mechanical properties. A freeradical and cationic mixed-type radiation curable composite resin was also successfully developed, and SLA parts without obvious distortion were built on the SLA machines HRPL series from this hybrid resin, successfully and efficiently.     

Manufacturing near dense metal parts via indirect selective laser sintering combined with isostatic pressing

To fabricate metal parts via indirect selective laser sintering (SLS), isostatic pressing technology, including hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and cold isostatic pressing (CIP), are exploited to reform SLS green parts and make them near dense. The processes of SLS/HIP and SLS/CIP/HIP technologies are investigated respectively and the densification of AISI304 stainless steel specimens is mainly discussed. It is indicated that green parts made by indirect SLS can be pressed into near dense parts with the relative densities of 67.3% and more than 80% in SLS/HIP and SLS/CIP/HIP routes, respectively, and their densities rise if much higher CIP pressure is employed. Compared with SLS/HIP, SLS/CIP/HIP technology is regarded as a better method to manufactured dense parts, and it enlarges the application domain of indirect SLS simultaneously. PACS 81.20.Ev; 81.20.Hy; 81.40.Lm; 81.40.Vw     

激光烧结石墨烯铜复合材料温度场有限元模拟

在激光烧结石墨烯增强铜基复合材料的过程中,了解瞬时温度场分布对优化工艺参数、控制烧结质量有重要作用。建立了激光烧结预涂在42CrMo基板上的石墨烯铜的混合粉末的有限元模型。研究了激光烧结过程温度场分布,熔池的几何参数以及烧结层与基体的冶金结合宽度。为了验证模拟结果,使用与模拟相同的参数进行了单道激光烧结的实验。研究表明,热传导、热辐射和相变潜热在激光烧结过程的温度场分布中起重要作用。实验结果与模拟结果较为一致。所以可以依据模拟结果预测实验的温度场分布和熔池几何参数,同时也可以据此优化激光烧结参数。     

Near-field-enhanced,off-resonant laser sintering of semiconductor particles for additive manufacturing of dispersed Au–ZnO-micro/nano hybrid structures

Off-resonant near-field enhancement by gold nanoparticles adsorbed on crystalline zinc oxide significantly increases the energy efficiency of infrared laser sintering. In detail, ten different gold mass loads on zinc oxide were exposed to 1,064 nm cw-laser radiation. Variation of scan speed, laser power, and spot size showed that the energy threshold required for sintering decreases and sintering process window widens compared to laser sintering of pure zinc oxide powder. Transmission electron microscope analysis after focused ion beam cross sectioning of the sintered particles reveals that supported gold nanoparticles homogenously resolidify in the sintered semiconductor matrix. The enhanced sintering process with ligand-free gold nanoparticles gives access to metal–semiconductor hybrid materials with potential application in light harvesting or energy conversion.     

Cerium oxide nanoparticles protect primary mouse bone marrow stromal cells from apoptosis induced by oxidative stress

The sintering of a silver (Ag) nanoparticle film by laser beam irradiation was studied using a CW DPSS laser. The laser sintering of the Ag nanoparticle thin film gave a transparent conductive film with a thickness of ca. 10 nm, whereas a thin film sintered by conventional heat treatment using an electronic furnace was an insulator because of the formation of isolated silver grains during the slow heating process. The laser sintering of the Ag nanoparticle thin film gave a unique conductive network structure due to the rapid heating and quenching process caused by laser beam scanning. The influences of the laser sintering conditions such as laser scan speed on the conductivity and the transparency were studied. With the increase of scan speed from 0.50 to 5.00 mm/s, the surface resistivity remarkably decreased from 4.45 × 10⁸ to 6.30 Ω/sq. The addition of copper (Cu) nanoparticles to silver thin film was also studied to improve the homogeneity of the film and the conductivity due to the interaction between the oxidized surface of Cu nanoparticle and a glass substrate. By adding 5 wt% Cu nanoparticles to the Ag thin film, the surface resistivity improved to 2.40 Ω/sq.     

Modelling of the thermal processes that occur during laser sintering of reacting powder compositions

A two-dimensional mathematical model has been developed to describe simultaneous self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) and selective laser sintering (SLS) of powder compositions. The models applicability is limited by the magnitude of laser irradiation. It allows a comparison to be made between product geometry and the velocity of the laser irradiation spot. PACS 81.20.ka; 81.05.bx; 81.05.Zx     

316L不锈钢粉末光纤激光选区熔化特性

采用自行研制的光纤激光选区熔化快速成型设备,研究了选区激光熔化316L不锈钢粉末工艺参数、能量输入与样件致密度、表面形貌之间的关系以及微观组织特征。结果表明:扫描速度对成型效果影响最为显著;样件致密度随着激光能量密度提高有逐渐增大的趋势;能量密度作为选区激光熔化工艺的技术指标具有可操作性;表面形貌由激光功率与扫描速度比值所决定。深入探讨了能量输入、熔化凝固行为、激光功率与扫描速度比值与样件致密度、表面形貌的关系。结果表明:选区激光熔化凝固组织层内、层间熔合处为弧形,且为冶金结合,金相组织主要由柱状晶与等轴晶组成,层内靠近熔合线周围是柱状晶,而层间靠近熔合线附近主要是细小等轴晶,晶粒直径为1μm左右。     

Layering laser-assisted sintering of functional graded porous PZT ceramoplasts

Within the scope of the present study, the three-dimensional (3D) samples from poly(vinylidene fluoride) plus lead zirconate titanate (PVDF+PZT) and silica+PZT powdered compositions were successfully prepared by the selective laser sintering (SLS) process. The optimal regimes for the layer-by-layer fabrication of 3D samples were determined both for wavelengths of 10.6 and 1.06 μm. The sample structure and element composition were characterized by the use of the scanning electronic microscope in combination with the energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) analysis. It was shown that after the SLS process, the initial perovskite phase did not undergo any significant structural changes. The results of characterization tests testified to the decease of the sample density and opened porosity by the 2–5 times as compared to the solid PZT that seems to be useful for acoustic applications. A comparative estimate of the PVDF destruction process was fulfilled for the laser wavelength of 10.6 and 1.06 μm, by using infrared spectroscopy, photo calorimetrical and chromatography measurements, sol-gel and viscosity analysis. It was found that the structuring velocity had diametrically opposite behavior for these wavelengths: it grows with the laser power increase for λ = 10.6 μm and, vice versa, it falls for λ = 1.06 μm.     

Porous microstructures induced by picosecond laser scanning irradiation on stainless steel surface

A study of porous surfaces having micropores significantly smaller than laser spot on the stainless steel 304L sample surface induced by a picosecond regenerative amplified laser, operating at 1064 nm, is presented. Variations in the interaction regime of picosecond laser pulses with stainless steel surfaces at peak irradiation fluences(F_pk=0.378–4.496 J/cm²) with scanning speeds(v=125–1000 μm/s) and scan line spacings(s=0–50 μm) have been observed and thoroughly investigated. It is observed that interactions within these parameters allows for the generation of well-defined structured surfaces. To investigate the formation mechanism of sub-focus micropores, the influence of key processing parameters has been analyzed using a pre-designed laser pulse scanning layout. Appearances of sub-focus ripples and micropores with the variation of laser peak fluence, scanning speed and scan line spacing have been observed. The dependencies of surface structures on these interaction parameters have been preliminarily verified. With the help of the experimental results obtained, interaction parameters for fabrication of large area homogeneous porous structures with the feature sizes in the range of 3–15 μm are determined.     

Parametric analysis of the selective laser melting process

Selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM) technology is used for manufacturing net-shaped objects from commercial Inox 904L powder with ≤20 μm particle size. Experiments were carried out on PHENIX-PM100 machine equipped with a 50 W cw fiber laser. Powder is layered by a roller over the surface of a 100 mm-diameter build cylinder. Optimal parameters of layer thickness and power input per unit speed for SLM were determined. It was shown that the greater the value of P/V ratio is, the larger is the remelted line (called as “vector”). Influence of the shifting of consecutive single vectors on the process of forming the first layer was studied. Different strategies for forming objects with less than 1 mm-sized inner structures were tested, as, for example, forming a 20 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm box with 140 μm-thick inner compartment walls.     

Statistical analysis of parameter effects on bending angle in laser forming process by pulsed Nd:YAG laser

In recent years, laser application has been introduced for bending and forming as new processes in manufacturing. The capability of laser bending demands more studies to recognize parameters influencing bending angle of sheet metals. In this study the effects of parameters such as material, laser power, beam diameter, scan velocity, sheet thickness, pass number and pulse duration on bending angle were studied by FEM initially and then followed by experiments. Furthermore, the Taguchi experimental design method was employed to pin point parameters, which significantly affect the bending process of laser bending of St12 and 304 alloy steels, which have a wide range of applications in products manufacturing. A regression analysis was conducted and a closed form equation was derived. The closed form equation can be used in industry to determine which process parameters (factors) enhance the bending angle in laser bending process.     

Mass spring lattice modeling of the scanning laser source technique

The scanning laser source (SLS) technique is a promising new laser ultrasonic tool for the detection of small surface-breaking defects. The SLS approach is based on monitoring the changes in laser generated ultrasound as a laser source is scanned over a defect. Changes in amplitude and frequency content have been observed for ultrasound generated by the laser over uniform and defective areas. In this paper, the SLS technique is simulated numerically using the mass spring lattice model. Thermoelastic laser generation of ultrasound in an elastic material is modeled using a shear dipole distribution. The spatial and temporal energy distribution profiles of typical pulsed laser sources are used to model the laser source. The amplitude and spectral variations in the laser generated ultrasound as the SLS scans over a large aluminum block containing a small surface-breaking crack are observed. The experimentally observed SLS amplitude and spectral signatures are shown to be captured very well by the model. In addition, the possibility of utilizing the SLS technique to size surface-breaking cracks that are sub-wavelength in depth is explored.     

Laser direct micromilling of copper-based bioelectrode with surface microstructure array

The laser direct micromilling is proposed to fabricate the microstructure arrays on the surface of dry bioelectrodes using red copper material. Based on the principle of laser machining and SEM results, the forming process of microstructure arrays on the surface of copper-based bioelectrodes is discussed. When the process parameters are varied, the effect of process spacing, laser output power, scanning speed and number of scan on the morphology and geometrical dimension of microstructure array of bioelectrode is investigated. The results show that the cone surface microstructure can be fabricated when process spacing is set to 0.1 mm. Surface roughness of microstructure is greatly changed with different scanning speeds. The height of surface microstructure and recast layer is greatly increased with increasing laser output power. When smaller laser output power or less number of scan are selected, surface microstructure array is difficult to be fabricated. However, it is easy to generate the damage of surface microstructure when the larger output power or excessive scanning times are selected. Moreover, our developed copper-based bioelectrode shows a hydrophobic property when the spacings are selected in the range of 0.1–0.3 mm. Eventually, the optimized process parameters are obtained to fabricate the bioelectrode with cone microstructure array.     

Analysis on the optical properties for the ytterbium doped silica glasses prepared by laser sintering technology

The paper demonstrates the optical properties of the ytterbium doped silica glasses that were fabricated by laser sintering technology combined with liquid phase doping method, and analyzed the influence of the fabricated process on the formation of Yb²⁺. The spectral parameters and laser performance parameters were also calculated and analyzed. The results indicate that the formation of Yb²⁺ can be effectively restrained through the optimized preparation process. The prepared ytterbium doped silica glass presents typical absorption and emission cross sections of Yb³⁺, and possesses attractive laser performance parameters. The material would have potential applications for the gain medium of large mode area photonic crystal fiber lasers.     

Surface transformation of AISI 304 stainless steel by high power diode laser

A high power diode laser was used in continuous mode to irradiate milled AISI 304 substrates in order to modify their surface morphology. Milling of the steel substrates was operated at different feeds, thus allowing the achievement of a broad range of starting surface texture, characterized by average roughness of ∼0.65-1.5 μm. Laser finishing was then operated on them by varying laser power and scan speed.The effectiveness of the laser finishing was evaluated by 3D surface profilometry and SEM imaging. Laser was found to modify the surface morphology of the irradiated zones and achieve high quality surface textures. Further, consistent trends of the amplitude, spacing and hybrid roughness parameters according to laser operational settings can often be found. Finally, mapping of the experimental data can lead to the definition of a first approximation tool, which can be profitably used for simulation and process control.     

Prediction of weld strength and seam width for laser transmission welding of thermoplastic using response surface methodology

In the present work, a study is made to investigate the effects of process parameters, namely, laser power, welding speed, size of the laser beam and clamp pressure, on the lap-shear strength and weld-seam width for laser transmission welding of acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate), using a diode laser system. Response surface methodology (RSM) is employed to develop mathematical relationships between the welding process parameters and the output variables of the weld joint to determine the welding input parameters that lead to the desired weld quality. In addition, using response surface plots, the interaction effects of process parameters on the responses are analyzed and discussed. The statistical software Design-Expert v7 is used to establish the design matrix and to obtain the regression equations. The developed mathematical models are tested by analysis-of-variance (ANOVA) method to check their adequacy. Finally, a comparison is made between measured and calculated results, which are in good agreement. This indicates that the developed models can predict the responses adequately within the limits of welding parameters being used.     

弯月面涂胶均匀性改进

针对大面积衍射光学元件制作过程中对光刻胶均匀涂覆的困难,研究弯月面均匀涂胶方法。利用沟槽型弯月面涂胶机,分析影响光刻胶厚度和厚度均匀性的因素。从实验上验证了光刻胶的胶厚和涂覆扫描速率的正相关关系。分析了光刻胶的浓度、基片与涂覆器刀口间隙、供胶速率等因素对胶厚及胶厚均匀性的影响。利用非接触式的激光微位移传感器监测基片和涂覆器刀口间隙,控制此间隙的抖动小于15μm,优化系统运行的稳定性,提升了弯月面涂覆胶厚的均匀性,实现了胶厚峰谷值偏差3%和标准偏差0.5%的均匀光刻胶涂覆,能够满足脉宽压缩光栅等制作过程中对光刻胶均匀涂覆的需求。     

Selective laser sintering of amorphous metal powder

For the first time, selective sintering of amorphous PtCuNiP powder with a pulsed Nd:YAG laser has been studied. Upon pulsed interaction, the grains melt only superficially to build necks between the grains. Depending on the laser parameters, the sintered material can be crystallized or retained amorphous. By contrast with crystalline powder, laser sintering of amorphous powder is achieved at substantially lower pulse energies due to its low melting point. The obtained results are compared with previous results from selective laser sintering of titanium powder. PACS 61.43.Dq; 81.20.Ev, 81.05.Rm