Critical energy for direct initiation of detonation induced by laser ablation

This study describes experimental work examining the critical energy for direct initiation of detonation by laser ablation in a stoichiometric acetylene–oxygen mixture. The amount of input energy, the target material, and the surface roughness of the target were varied to study their effects on shock wave generation. Aluminum and stainless steel were used as target materials. The propagating shock wave induced by laser ablation was observed using high-speed shadow imaging. The critical energy for direct initiation of detonation was calculated using the strong blast wave theory. The critical input energy for aluminum was found to be lower than that for stainless steel. Because the thermodynamic critical temperature of aluminum is lower than that of stainless steel, aluminum caused a phase explosion more easily than stainless steel, thus resulting in direct initiation of detonation with a lower amount of input energy. The effects of surface roughness on critical input energy and shock wave generation were negligibly small. The critical initiation energy was estimated to be \(10.3 \pm 0.2\) mJ, which is in agreement with the experimental data obtained in previous work. The estimated critical initiation energy was independent of the target material. However, other predictions of the critical initiation energy by using the cell size overestimated this value because of the scatter in cell size data of an unstable cellular structure. Furthermore, interaction between plasma plumes formed by laser ablation and those formed by breakdown near the target surface might have contributed to requiring a lower amount of energy for initiating detonation.     

Experimental and numerical studies of shock wave focusing in water

The focusing of plane shock waves and spherical blast waves in water by parabolic and ellipsoidal reflectors is studied experimentally and numerically. The numerical computations are performed by a second order method based on an extension of Godunov's method, which is called piecewise-linear method. Tests of this method and a comparison with pressure measurements show a strong dependence of the maximum pressure attained in the focal region on the mesh size. Outside this focal region, however, good agreement between the pressure measurements and the result of the numerical computation is found. Furthermore it is shown by numerical computation, that non-linear effects in the focusing process may be partly avoided by an optimized reflector contour which depends on the strength of the incident shock wave. This modification provides that the maximum pressure is attained at the geometric focus and not at a location between reflector surface and geometrical focus.     

Overpressure generation and repetition of collapsing microbubbles induced by shock wave reflection in a narrow gap

This paper reports the summary of experiments performed to successive generate small-scale underwater shock waves by means of shock-induced collapse of microbubbles confined in a narrow gap. The project is motivated to develop a method for efficient inactivation of marine bacteria contained in ship ballast water by high impulsive pressure loading. The shock wave–air bubbles interaction was visualized by shadowgraph; the images were recorded by ImaCon200, and simultaneous pressure measurements were performed by using an optical fiber pressure transducer with higher temporal resolution. Attaching small air bubbles on a single nylon fiber and placing it in a confined space, we demonstrated sequential generation of impulsive high pressures at the successive collapses of small bubbles at incident and reflected shock loadings. The values of the very short impulsive pressures that occurred repeatedly for a relatively long term are found high enough to inactivate marine bacteria.     

Interaction between oblique shock waves in metal powders

In the paper, interaction between oblique shock waves in metal powders is numerically simulated. The boundaries between regular- and irregular-interaction regimes are established. A hysteresis that takes place during a transition from one regime to the other is revealed. Received 17 August 2001 / Accepted 6 December 2001     

Measurement of laser driven shock wave transit time through thin aluminium targets by optical shadowgraphy

Laser driven shock wave transit time in thin aluminium targets was experimentally estimated by determining the shock emergence time at the rear of thin aluminium foils of varying thickness from 5 to 35 μm. A 20 J, 5 ns Nd:glass laser was focused to produce laser intensity of 10¹² to 5 × 10¹³ W/cm² on the targets which were placed in vacuum. Target foil movement was measured to an accuracy of 10 μm using optical shadowgraphy technique. This technique was used to accurately measure the shock transit time by recording the optical shadowgrams at various instants of time and thus identify the instant at which the foil is just set into motion. Shock transit time measured in foils of different thickness can give the value of shock velocity at a given laser intensity. Target motion recorded by shadowgraphy can also give the target foil velocity from which shock pressure can be estimated. Experimental values of shock transit time, shock velocity and shock pressure were observed to agree well with the values using one-dimensional multi-group radiation hydrodynamic simulations. PACS 52.50Jm; 52.50Lp; 52.25 Communicated by K. Takayama     

The interaction between shock waves and solid spheres arrays in a shock tube

When a shock wave interacts with a group of solid spheres, non-linear aerodynamic behaviors come into effect. The complicated wave reflections such as the Mach reflection occur in the wave propagation process. The wave interactions with vortices behind each sphere‘s wake cause fluctuation in the pressure profiles of shock waves. This paper reports an experimental study for the aerodynamic processes involved in the interaction between shock waves and solid spheres. A schlieren photography was applied to visualize the various shock waves passing through solid spheres. Pressure measurements were performed along different downstream positions. The experiments were conducted in both rectangular and circular shock tubes. The data with respect to the effect of the sphere array, size, interval distance, incident Mach number, etc., on the shock wave attenuation were obtained.     

Medical applications and bioeffects of extracorporeal shock waves

Lithotripter shock waves are pressure pulses of microsecond duration with peak pressures of 35–120 MPa followed by a tensile wave. They are an established treatment modality for kidney and gallstone disease. Further applications are pancreatic and salivary stones, as well as delayed fracture healing. The latter are either on their way to become established treatments or are currently under investigation. Shock waves generate tissue damage as a side effect which has been extensively investigated in the kidney, the liver, and the gallbladder. The primary adverse effects are local destruction of blood vessels, bleedings, and formation of blood clots in vessels. Investigations on the mechanism of shock wave action revealed that lithotripters generate cavitation both in vitro and in vivo. An increase in tissue damage at higher pulse administration rates, and also at shock wave application with concomitant gas bubble injection suggested that cavitation is a major mechanism of tissue damage. Disturbances of the heart rhythm and excitation of nerves are further biological effects of shock waves; both are probably also mediated by cavitation. On the cellular level, shock waves induce damage to cell organelles; its extent is related to their energy density. They also cause a transient increase in membrane permeability which does not lead to cell death. Administered either alone or in combination with drugs, shock waves have been shown to delay the growth of small animal tumors and even induce tumor remissions. While the role of cavitation in biological effects is widely accepted, the mechanism of stone fragmentation by shock waves is still controversial. Cavitation is detected around the stone and hyperbaric pressure suppresses fragmentation; yet major cracks are formed early before cavitation bubble collapse is observed. The latter has been regarded as evidence for a direct shock wave effect.This article was processed using Springer-Verlag T_EX Shock Waves macro package 1.0 and the AMS fonts, developed by the American Mathematical Society.     

Plasma mitigation of shock wave: experiments and theory

Two types of plasma spikes, generated by on-board 60 Hz periodic and pulsed dc electric discharges in front of two slightly different wind tunnel models, were used to demonstrate the non-thermal plasma techniques for shock wave mitigation. The experiments were conducted in a Mach 2.5 wind tunnel. (1) In the periodic discharge case, the results show a transformation of the shock from a well-defined attached shock into a highly curved shock structure, which has increased shock angle and also appears in diffused form. As shown in a sequence with increasing discharge intensity, the shock in front of the model moves upstream to become detached with increasing standoff distance from the model and is eliminated near the peak of the discharge. The power measurements exclude the heating effect as a possible cause of the observed shock wave modification. A theory using a cone model as the shock wave generator is presented to explain the observed plasma effect on shock wave. The analysis shows that the plasma generated in front of the model can effectively deflect the incoming flow; such a flow deflection modifies the structure of the shock wave generated by the cone model, as shown by the numerical results, from a conic shape to a curved one. The shock front moves upstream with a larger shock angle, matching well with that observed in the experiment. (2) In the pulsed dc discharge case, hollow cone-shaped plasma that envelops the physical spike of a truncated cone model is produced in the discharge; consequently, the original bow shock is modified to a conical shock, equivalent to reinstating the model into a perfect cone and to increase the body aspect ratio by 70%. A significant wave drag reduction in each discharge is inferred from the pressure measurements; at the discharge maximum, the pressure on the frontal surface of the body decreases by more than 30%, the pressure on the cone surface increases by about 5%, whereas the pressure on the cylinder surface remains unchanged. The energy saving from drag reduction is estimated to make up two-thirds of the energy consumed in the electric discharge for the plasma generation. The measurements also show that the plasma effect on the shock structure lasts much longer than the discharge period.

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Comparison of different methods of measurement of pressure of underwater shock waves generated by electrical discharge

Different methods for measurement of strong underwater shock waves pressure pulses with peak pressures of up to 200 MPa and rise time of tens to hundreds of nanoseconds are described and compared. The experimental techniques include direct methods of pressure measurement using various electromechanical gauges such as quartz, carbon-based, and commercially available PCB gauges, and nondirect methods based on measurement of the velocity of the shock wave such as time-of-flight and fast-streak photography. Advantages and disadvantages of the used gauges and methods are discussed. The shock waves were produced by underwater electrical discharge (discharge current amplitude ≤100 kA, pulse duration ≤5 μs) initiated by an exploding wire. A good correspondence between the pressure amplitudes measured by the various gauges and methods was observed. The obtained dependence of the shock wave pressure on the distance from the discharge channel was found to be best fitted by a r ^−0.7 law. It is also shown that none of these methods can be used to determine the time evolution of the pressure behind the front of the shock wave.     

Laser-generated rayleigh waves in graphite/epoxy composites

This study explores the potential for application of laser-induced surface or Rayleigh waves on graphite/epoxy composites. Rayleigh waves were generated by a Q-switched ruby laser in the ablation regime and detected by a pinducer which permitted accurate phase-velocity measurements. The Rayleigh wave velocity was measured in various directions relative to the fiber direction. Experimental results agreed closely with numerical predictions in the thick plate, but showed some increase of phase velocity in the thin plate. Laser-generated Rayleigh waves, particularly along the fiber direction, showed good potential for applications in NDT.     

The interaction between shock waves and foam in a shock tube

An experimental study and a numerical simulation were conducted to investigate the mechanical and thermodynamic processes involved in the interaction between shock waves and low density foam. The experiment was done in a stainless shock tube (80 mm in inner diameter, 10 mm in wall thickness and 5 360 mm in length). The velocities of the incident and reflected compression waves in the foam were measured by using piezo-ceramic pressure sensors. The end-wall peak pressure behind the reflected wave in the foam was measured by using a crystal piezoelectric sensor. It is suggested that the high end-wall pressure may be caused by a rapid contact between the foam and the end-wall surface. Both open-cell and closed-cell foams with different length and density were tested. Through comparing the numerical and experimental end-wall pressure, the permeability coefficients α and β are quantitatively determined.     

MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS OF LASER GENERATED RAYLEIGH AND LAMB WAVES CONSIDERING ITS PULSE DURATION

In this article, laser generated Rayleigh and Lamb waves are studied by taking into account its pulse duration. The physical model and theoretical solution are presented to predict the corresponding waveforms for aluminum samples under the ablation generation regime.The waveforms of the excited Rayleigh and Lamb waves by laser with selected pulse duration were measured by laser interferometer and analyzed theoretically, and the agreement between measurement and analysis is demonstrated for the validation of the theoretical model and solution.The broadening of the Rayleigh wave and the disappearing of high order Lamb wave modes can be found with the increase of the pulse duration by the laser ultrasonic technique.     

Transition between regular and Mach reflection of shock waves: new numerical and experimental results

New numerical and experimental results on the transition between regular and Mach reflections of steady shock waves are presented. The influence of flow three-dimensionality on transition between steady regular and Mach reflection has been studied in detail both numerically and experimentally. Characteristic features of 3D shock wave configuration, such as peripheral Mach reflection, non-monotonous Mach stem variation in transverse direction, the existence of combined Mach-regular-peripheral Mach shock wave configuration, have been found in the numerical simulations. The application of laser sheet imaging technique in streamwise direction allowed us to confirm all the details of shock wave configuration in the experiments. Close agreement of the numerical and experimental data on Mach stem heights is shown. Received 23 November 2000 / Accepted 25 April 2001     

激波诱导火焰失稳与爆轰的条件研究

采用九阶WENO和十阶中心差分格式数值求解激波与火焰作用过程,考察了激波强度、火焰尺寸对激波与球形火焰作用过程的影响。结果表明,增大激波强度或火焰尺寸均可在流场中引发爆轰,但激波强度的影响更大,并且其引发的爆轰可使火焰迅速膨胀,放热率提高,从而影响燃烧特性;此外,爆轰波传播过程中会迅速消耗可燃预混气,合并原有的反射激波,并在流场中形成局部高压区,极大地改变流场结构。     

Vortical regime of the flow behind the bow shock wave

A new nonstationary regime of the flow around a step and a cylinder was found to exist at high free-stream Mach numbers for gas specific heat ratios below 1.2. The main features of the flow are strong vortices in the shock-compressed region with supersonic reversal velocities at the body face. The bow shock wave takes on a complicated shape, fluctuating in time. The vortical regimes can result from local heterogeneities in the free stream. The case of the heterogeneity is studied in this paper in the form of a thin thermal layer of limited length. The vortical regime remains in existence after the source of disturbances is removed. The results have been obtained through computer simulations through the use of Eulerian hydrodynamic equations and by way of several numerical methods: FLIC, Godunov's scheme, TVD, and PPM. The influence of viscosity on the development of the vortical regime has been studied by computer solving the Navier–Stokes equations. Received 21 August 1998 / Accepted 6 June 2001     

Study of unsteady flow past bodies behind shock waves

Several theoretical and experimental studies have been devoted to the problem of the nonstationary action of the stream behind a shock wave on bodies of varied shape. In particular, in [1], the pressure and density are calculated for flow about bodies of the more typical shapes in the initial stage of the process. The basic relations which accompany the interaction of shock waves are considered in [2, 3]. The analysis of the phenomena of diffraction of shock waves on the sphere, cylinder, and cone is presented in [4]. Problems of unsteady flow about a wing are examined in [5, 6]. A detailed review of the foreign studies on unsteady flow is given in [7]. Of great practical interest is the question of the time for flow formation and the magnitudes of the unsteady loads during this period. Experimental investigations have been made recently [8, 9] in which some criteria are presented for estimating the bow shock formation time for supersonic flow about the sphere and cylinder with flat blunting. However the question of the formation time of the stationary pressure on the body surface is not referred to in these studies and no relationship is shown between the transient position of the reflected wave and the corresponding unsteady pressure on the surface. Moreover, in [8] the dimensionless time criterion is determined very approximately, independently of the Mach number of the shock wave. The present study was undertaken with the object of determining the basic criteria which characterize unsteady flow about bodies behind a plane shock wave which has time-independent parameters, and clarification of the shock wave reflected from the body and the pressure on the surface of the body during the transient period. The most typical body shapes were studied: 1) a cylinder with flat face aligned with the stream; 2) a spherically-blunted cylinder; and 3) a cylinder transverse to the stream. The experiments were conducted in a conventional shock tube using the single-diaphragm scheme. The measurements of the pressure on the models and the velocity of the incident shock wave were made using the technique analogous to that of [10, 11]. A highspeed movie camera was used to record the pattern of the wave diffraction on the body. The Mach number of the incident shock wave varied in the range from M=1.5 to M≈6.0, which corresponded to a range of Mach numbers M_∞ of the stream behind the shock wave from 0.6 to 2.1. The calculations of the required gas dynamic parameters for high temperatures were made with account for equilibrium dissociation of the air on the basis of the data of [10, 12, 13]. The magnitude of the relative maximal shock wave standoff Δ at the stagnation point obtained in the present experiments was compared with the values of Δ from other studies. In the case of the flat-blunted cylinder it was in good agreement with the results of [8–14], and in the case of the spherically-blunted cylinder and the transverse cylinder it was in agreement with the results of [15].     

Transition of plane overdriven detonation wave to the Chapman-Jouguet regime

The asymptotic laws of behavior for plane, cylindrical, and spherical infinitely thin detonation waves were found in [1, 2] for increasing distance from an igniting source in those cases in which the waves changed into Chapman-Jouguet waves as they decayed. It was shown that the plane overdriven detonation wave approaches the Chapman-Jouguet regime asymptotically, while the transition of the cylindrical or spherical strong detonation wave into the Chapman-Jouguet wave may occur at a finite distance from the initiation source.Similar conclusions are valid for the propagation of stationary steadystate detonation waves which arise with flow of combustible gas mixtures past bodies.However, numerous experiments [3, 4] on firing bodies in a detonating gas show that the overdriven detonation wave which forms ahead of the body decays and decomposes into an ordinary compression shock and a slow combustion front. To establish why the wave does not make the transition to the Chapman-Jouguet regime, in the following we consider the propagation of a plane detonation wave and account for finite chemical reaction rates. We use the very simple two-front model (ordinary shock wave and following flame front). Conditions are found for which transition to the Chapman-Jouguet regime does not occur. We first consider the propagation of an unsteady plane wave and then the steady plane wave. It is found that for all the mixtures used in these experiments transition to the Chapman-Jouguet regime is not possible within the framework of the assumed model.     

Shock waves from an open-ended shock tube with different shapes

A new method for decreasing the attenuation of a shock wave emerging from an open-ended shock tube exit into a large free space has been developed to improve the shock wave technique for cleaning deposits on the surfaces in industrial equipments by changing the tube exit geometry. Three tube exits (the simple tube exit, a tube exit with ring and a coaxial tube exit) were used to study the propagation processes of the shock waves. The detailed flow features were experimentally investigated by use of a two-dimensional color schlieren method and by pressure measurements. By comparing the results for different tube exits, it is shown that the expansion of the shock waves near the mouth can be restricted by using the tube exit with ring or the coaxial tube exit. Thus, the attenuation of the shock waves is reduced. The time histories of overpressure have illustrated that the best results are obtained for the coaxial tube exit. But the pressure signals for the tube exit with ring showed comparable results with the advantage of a relatively simple geometry. The flow structures of diffracting shock waves have also been simulated by using an upwind finite volume scheme based on a high order extension of Godunov's method as well as an adaptive unstructured triangular mesh refinement/unrefinement algorithm. The numberical results agree remarkably with the experimental ones.     

Focusing of weak shock waves in confined axisymmetric chambers

Theoretical study of a weak shock wave focusing process on a spherical region in confined 3-D axisymmetric chambers is presented. The chambers are elliptic or parabolic in the plane cross-section containing their axis of symmetry. In the elliptic case a spherical shock wave of constant strength generated at one of the focal points will reflect off the chamber wall and converge on a spherical region around the second focus of the chamber. It is shown that the pressure distribution on the converging spherical shock wave is not homogeneous. In the parabolic case two possibilities of shock generation are considered. In the first one a plane shock wave of constant intensity is send in the inner of the chamber. This shock wave with the plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis will after the reflection off the chamber wall transform to a spherical shock with non-homogeneous pressure distribution. Alternatively, a spherical shock of constant intensity generated at the focus of the paraboloidal chamber will after the reflection transform to a plane shock with non-homogeneous pressure distribution propagating in the outer of the chamber. The above mentioned problems are solved within the frame of the geometrical acoustics approximation and the flow fields as well as the non-uniform shock strengths behind the converging wave fronts are calculated.This article was processed using Springer-Verlag T_EX Shock Waves macro package 1.0 and the AMS fonts, developed by the American Mathematical Society.     

锥形长药柱水下爆炸冲击波参数计算方法

为了计算锥形长药柱水下爆炸冲击波压力,以及研究长脉宽冲击波的传输特性,基于叠加原理建立了冲击波压力-时间曲线的计算方法,通过实验验证了该方法的有效性,在此基础上分析了锥形长药柱不同方位冲击波压力的分布规律。研究结果表明:锥形长药柱产生的冲击波压力具有各向异性,在起爆端一侧形成的是具有厚波头特征的低幅值长脉宽冲击波,在装药径向形成的是接近指数衰减的高幅值冲击波,而在远离起爆端的冲击波压力幅值和脉宽则介于前两者之间。锥形长药柱与球形装药冲击波分布的差异是由于装药形状和起爆方式的改变所导致的,由于装药不同部位起爆的时间差,导致水下爆炸冲击波在不同位置的叠加效果存在明显差异,药柱周围流场中形成的冲击波压力具有方向性。利用提出的计算方法得到的计算结果与实验结果和数值模拟结果吻合较好,研究结果可为锥形长药柱水下爆炸冲击波威力场和毁伤评估提供参考和依据。