Modeling of the thermal fluid flow and keyhole shape in stationary plasma arc welding

A three dimensional transient model has been developed to investigate the fluid flow and heat transfer in the weld pool with a dynamic-variation keyhole during stationary plasma arc welding (PAW). The level set method is used to track the moving boundary of the keyhole, and the evolution of both keyhole and weld pool in stationary keyhole PAW process are quantitatively analyzed. The thermal fluid flow of the molten metal surrounding the keyhole inside the weld pool is numerically simulated, and its effect on the keyhole shape is considered. The establishing time of an open keyhole is calculated for the stationary plasma arc welding of stainless steel plates with thickness 6 mm. The stationary keyhole PAW experiments are conducted to measure the keyhole shape, the fusion zone, and the establishment time of the keyhole. The predicted results, such as the keyhole length and width at bottom-side, the weld width at top- and bottom-side, and the establishment time of the keyhole, are in agreement with the experimental measurement.     

焊接接头局部塑性行为的循环压痕实验研究

基于纳米压痕技术,对转子钢焊接接头不同区域（母材、焊缝和热影响区）开展了压入位移控制的单向压痕实验和压入载荷控制的循环压痕实验研究．首先,通过压入位移控制的单向压痕实验,采用多次测试取平均值的方式获得了焊接接头各个区域的弹性模量和硬度分布特征,同时对各区域弹性模量中值点的载荷-压入深度曲线进行了分析;其次,对各个区域进行压入载荷控制的循环压痕实验,比较其压入深度随循环周次的演化特征．结果表明,焊接接头不同区域力学性能差异较大,热影响区的弹性模量、硬度、抗拉强度和抗循环变形能力最高,焊缝次之,母材最弱;三个区域在循环压痕载荷下的接触载荷-压入深度滞回环曲线均表现出类似棘轮变形的演化特征,且母材演化速度高于焊缝,高于热影响区．研究结果对汽轮机焊接转子的焊接工艺的优化、寿命预测和可靠性设计具有重要的借鉴意义．     

Three dimensional modeling weld solidification cracks in multipass welding

This paper utilizes element birth and death finite element technique to control the process of filling metal step by step during multipass welding process. The dynamic thermal distributions and strain evolutions are simulated in 10 mm SUS310 stainless steel in multipass welding after taking into consideration of the fluid flow in the weld pool, the latent heat, taking into account the effect of the deformation in weld pool, change of initial temperature and solidification shrinkage. At the same time, the driving forces to weld solidification cracks of each weld pass are obtained successfully according to simulated thermal cycle (temperature against time) and mechanical strain cycle (mechanical strain against time). The results show the patterns of distribution of the driving force are similar to those of surface fusion welding. The driving force of first weld pass is larger than following weld passes and the driving force decreases gradually in company with welding processing. Sequent welding processes affect the mechanical strain distributions of previous weld pass, of which the tensile mechanical strain changes to compressive strain. In addition, the driving forces are analyzed and weld solidification cracks are predicted during multipass welding. The predicted results agree well with the experiments. Therefore, the simulated results in this study provide the foundation for predicting weld solidification cracking in actual weldment.     

Numerical analysis of the heat and fluid flow in a weld pool with a dynamic keyhole

In keyhole plasma arc welding, the interaction between the keyhole and the weld pool occurs when the keyhole appears inside the weld pool. The change of the keyhole shape and dimensions has direct effect on the heat and fluid flow in the weld pool, and the latter will also influence the keyhole geometry. In this study, the coupled behaviors of weld pool and keyhole are treated to develop a three-dimensional model for analyzing the heat and fluid flow inside a weld pool with a dynamic keyhole. In view of the characteristics of PAW process, a combined volumetric heat source model (double-ellipsoid plus conic body source) is established, and one of its distribution parameters is adjusted dynamically with the variation of the depth of keyhole. The physical phenomena, such as the weld pool development, the keyhole formation, the evolution of fluid flow and thermal field, the full-penetration of the test plates, and the transformation from a blind keyhole to an open keyhole, are quantitatively analyzed. The numerical results reveal the regularity of fluid flow in weld pool with a keyhole. The calculated keyhole shape and the fusion zone of plasma arc welds are compared with the experimental measurements. Both agree with each other generally. It lays foundation for optimizing the welding process parameters and improving the stability of plasma arc welding process.     

A phenomenological model for anisotropic creep in a multipass weld metal

Creep strength of welded joints can be estimated by continuum damage mechanics. In this case constitutive equations are required for different constituents of the welded joint: the weld metal, the heat-affected zone, and the parent material. The objective of this paper is to model the anisotropic creep behavior in a weld metal produced by multipass welding. To explain the origins of anisotropic creep, a mechanical model for a binary structure composed of fine-grained and coarse-grained constituents with different creep properties is introduced. The results illustrate the basic features of the stress redistribution and damage growth in the constituents of the weld metal and agree qualitatively with experimental observations. The structural analysis of a welded joint requires a model of creep for the weld metal under multiaxial stress states. For this purpose the engineering creep theory based on the creep potential hypothesis, the flow rule, and assumption of transverse isotropy is applied. The outcome is a coordinate-free equation for secondary creep formulated in terms of the Norton–Bailey–Odqvist creep potential and three invariants of the stress tensor. The material constants are identified according to the experimental data presented in the literature.     

Failure loads of spot weld specimens under impact opening and shear loading conditions

Failure loads of spot weld specimens are investigated under impact combined loading conditions. A set of test fixtures was designed and used to obtain failure loads of mild steel spot weld specimens under combined opening and shear loading conditions. Three different impact speeds were applied to examine the effects of separation speed on failure loads. Micrographs of the cross-sections of failed spot welds were obtained to understand the failure processes in mild steel specimens under different impact combined loads. The experimental results indicate that the failure mechanisms of spot welds are very similar for mild steel specimens at various impact speeds. These micrographs show that the sheet thickness can affect the failure mechanisms. For 1.0 mm specimens, the failure occurs near the base metal in a necking/shear failure mode. For 1.5 mm specimens, the failure occurs near the heat-affected zone in a shear failure mode. Based on the experimental results, the effects of the inertia force, the separation speed, and the loading angle on the failure loads of spot welds are investigated. Failure criteria are proposed to characterize the failure loads of spot welds under impact combined opening and shear loads for engineering applications. The failure load can be expressed as a function of the tensile strength of the base metal, the nugget size, the sheet thickness, the maximum separation speed, the loading angle, and empirical coefficients for a given welding schedule.     

Unsteady velocity field measurements at the outlet of an automotive supercharger using particle image velocimetry (PIV)

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to study air flow characteristics at the outlet of an automotive supercharger. Instantaneous velocity fields were analyzed to yield ensemble-averaged velocities and Reynolds stresses, and the ensemble-averages were used to determine maximum velocity and exit flow angle as a function of blade position for various speeds and pressure ratios. The results show that the flow exits the supercharger as a high-speed jet that not only varies in the parallel plane but also in the perpendicular plane, generating a complex three-dimensional flow. The flow varies in the magnitude and the angle at which it leaves the supercharger with the change in blade position and follows a periodic behavior. The maximum velocity at which the flow exits the supercharger also follows a periodic behavior with a variation of 25–30% observed for all the cases. In the parallel plane, the exit angles are periodic every 60° of blade rotation and vary by as much as 40°, whereas periodic behavior with every 120° of blade rotation and a variation of 60° is observed in the perpendicular plane. Variation in flow with blade position is also observed in the velocity and turbulence profiles, with periodic behavior with every 60° blade rotation. The velocity and velocity fluctuation profiles show that the unsteady nature of the flow is most significant close to the outlet, and these unsteady variations diminish 58 mm downstream of the outlet. An exit flow pattern of a Fig. 8 is generated as the flow leaves the blades with one complete blade rotation of 120° for all the cases, except 4000 rpm, pressure ratio 1.4, where the flow exits in a circular pattern.     

Three-dimensional strain distributions in upset rings by photoplastic simulation

The changes in internal diameter that occur when a hollow disk, or ring, is plastically deformed by axial compression have been proposed as a method for measuring interface friction during metal forming. The adoption of this test method has been delayed because the three-dimensional strains in such rings are not known. This paper describes how an experimental method using photoplastic simulation was used to obtain the three-dimensional strains for a particular ring geometry. It presents proot of highly nonuniform strains and also shows that the division between flow inward and flow outward occurs at different radii through the thickness of the ring.     

宽幅钢箱梁环焊缝焊接顺序优化研究

基于热弹塑性有限元法,采用ANSYS软件建立了网格疏密过渡的单箱五室钢箱梁壳单元模型;结合高效的分段移动热源,实现了对大型复杂长焊缝结构焊接全过程的数值模拟,并定性对比了宽幅钢箱梁在不同的环焊缝焊接顺序下顶板和底板的变形情况.分析结果表明:腹板焊缝的焊接顺序对竖向最大变形值(绝对值)的影响不大,其值主要取决于顶板和底板...     

Comprehensive numerical analysis of a three-pass bead-in-slot weld and its critical validation using neutron and synchrotron diffraction residual stress measurements

The current paper presents a finite element simulation of the residual stress field associated with a three pass slot weld in an AISI 316LN austenitic stainless steel plate. The simulation is split into uncoupled thermal and mechanical analyses which enable a computationally less expensive solution. A dedicated welding heat source modelling tool is employed to calibrate the ellipsoidal Gaussian volumetric heat source by making use of extensive thermocouple measurements and metallographic analyses made during and after welding. The mechanical analysis employs the Lemaitre–Chaboche mixed hardening model. This captures the cyclic mechanical response which a material undergoes during the thermo-mechanical cycles imposed by the welding process. A close examination of the material behaviour at various locations in the sample during the welding process, clearly demonstrates the importance of defining the correct hardening and high temperature softening behaviour. The simulation is validated by two independent diffraction techniques. The well-established neutron diffraction technique and a very novel spiral slit X-ray synchrotron technique were used to measure the residual stress–strain field associated with the three-pass weld. The comparison between the model and the experiment reveals close agreement with no adjustable parameters and clearly validates the used modelling procedure.     

Local mechanical properties of the 6061-T6 aluminium weld using micro-traction and instrumented indentation

The local mechanical properties of a weld zone, in a 6061-T6 aluminium alloy subjected to the modified indirect electric arc technique have been studied. The mechanical properties of the base metal, the weld metal and the heat affected zone were determined by means of usual and instrumented indentation testing, as well as micro-traction testing. To analyse the heat input effect resulting from the welding process, the evolution of the weld zone size was evaluated by means of classical indentation under a constant applied load. The results were presented using a Vickers hardness map representation. This allows monitoring exact hardness variation while leading to the identification of the different zones of the welded joint. Instrumented indentation testing was carried out to determine the local mechanical properties, such as the yield stress, the bulk modulus and the strain-hardening exponent. Obtained results are compared to those derived from tensile tests conducted on micro-specimen cuts taken from the weld zone. It was observed that yield stress values are directly comparable for indentation and micro-traction experiments. As for the elastic properties, no comparison was possible since the bulk modulus is measured by indentation, whereas it is the Young’s modulus by tensile test. The micro-traction testing seems to be more sensitive to represent the work hardening of a material since the corresponding exponent is found to be constant by instrumented indentation.     

Effect of welding process on fatigue crack growth behaviour of austenitic stainless steel welds in a low alloy (Q & T) steel

Fatigue crack growth behaviour from a lack of penetration (LOP) defect in austenitic stainless steel weld metals of cruciform joints made of a low alloy high strength (Q & T) steel has been studied to understand the effect of two welding processes, namely, shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW). Fatigue crack growth studies were carried out at a stress ratio of R = 0 and a frequency of 90 to 110 Hz in a resonant testing equipment (Rumul, Model:8601). Crack growth rates were relatively lower in the weld metal obtained by flux cored arc welding process. Microstructural features observed revealed marked difference in the morphology of delta ferrite for the welded joints obtained from the above two welding processes. Long streaks of delta ferrite in austenite matrix were found in case of SMAW-weld metal which seem to have lowered the resistance to the fatigue crack propagation. A discontinuous network of delta ferrite found in austenite matrix in the case of FCAW-weld metal seems to have contributed to slower propagation of fatigue crack. Fractographic features also substantiate the observed trends in the fatigue crack growth behaviour.     

不同坡口形状铍环激光钎焊温度场和应力场分析

本文对不同坡口形状镀环焊接过程进行了数值模拟,分析了坡口形状和焊接速度对铍环钎焊温度场和应力场的影响,结果表明:开坡口后铍环焊接的熔深和熔宽增大,而热影响区的焊接残余应力相对降低,特别是对于降低铍和AlSi12熔合面处的应力集中具有明显的效果;同时,坡口角度的增加主要对铍环热影响区的应力分布也有一定的影响.因此,铍环接头处开坡口不仅能够降低焊缝区的残余应力,还能减少铍材熔化引起的开裂.     

Crack propagation resistance of Zeron 100 weld metal fabricated using the GTA and SMA welding processes

It is envisaged that super duplex stainless steels, as currently used in the offshore oil and gas industries, will find application in the emergent renewable energy sector in areas such as offshore wind, wave and tidal electricity/hydrogen generation. Such applications typically involve engineering components experiencing fluctuating loads. Sub-critical flaws inherent in welded joints are ideal sites for crack initiation and subsequent propagation leading to fast fracture. The current paper investigates the fatigue performance of two Zeron 100 weld metals in a benign environment (laboratory air). The effects of residual stresses and misalignment inherent from the welding process are also considered. The crack propagation threshold and the intrinsic crack propagation resistance of both weld metals was found to be similar to that of the base metal. However, the fracture toughness of the base metal was superior to the GTA weld metal, which was in turn better than the SMA weld metal.     

On determining the shape of weld pools

The equations governing heat and fluid flow in weld pools for the TIG fusion welding process are presented and this coupled system is solved numerically using finite differences. Electromagnetic forcing terms, buoyancy forces, shear forces on the pool surface due to the variation in surface tension with temperature and an additional uniform magnetic field applied normal to the workpiece are all included in our model and results are displayed indicating the relative importance of these four mechanisms.     

深埋隧道地震动力响应的复反应分析

采用高速摄影技术对定常来流中ＮＡＣＡ４４１２翼的不稳定的空泡流形态特征进行了水洞试验研究．试验结果揭示了由于空泡形态断裂而产生的低频脉动现象．这一现象在跨空泡流（Ｔｒａｎｓ－ｃａｖｉｔａｔｉｎｇｆｌｏｗ）情况下尤为明显，常使空泡长度和厚度在大幅范围内拟周期地变动，其频率特性比较稳定，有别于空泡末端局部泡团脱落而产生的脉动     

石油钻机盘式刹车副材料选配的实验研究

在 MMW- 1型摩擦磨损试验机上 ,通过变温摩擦磨损特性试验 ,对优选出的 2种刹车盘表面堆焊材料和研制出的 2种刹车块材料进行了选配 ,并对各刹车副的摩擦学性能进行了分析与评价 .结果表明 ,摩擦偶件对刹车副材料的摩擦学性能有一定的影响 ,因此在进行材料的选配试验时应考虑偶件的匹配问题 .优选出的 2种表面堆焊材料与所研制的 2种刹车块材料组成摩擦副时具有较高的平均摩擦系数和热摩擦系数以及优良的高温耐磨性能 ,其中第二种表面堆焊材料与所研制的第二种无石棉刹车块材料组成摩擦副时的摩擦学性能指标最优 ,可以作为选配出的最优刹车副材料     

焊接接头低周疲劳裂纹扩展的统计分析与可靠性最弱环模型

在相同的试验条件下,对１６ＭｎＲ压力容器用钢焊接接头焊缝区、热影响区和母材区,分别做了１５ 根试样的低周疲劳试验,获得了三个区的低周疲劳寿命分布与裂纹扩展规律。试验表明,Ｐａｒｉｓ公式中的两个参数ｍ 和ｃ 分别服从正态分布和对数正态分布,ｍ 和ｌｏｇ ｃ 呈现统计线性关系。根据文中的统计结果,采用蒙特卡洛法对给定的两个裂纹长度间的扩展寿命进行了预测,预测结果与试验结果符合良好。文中还对焊接接头三个区的低周疲劳寿命进行了统计分析,获得了相应的概率密度函数,初步提出了整个焊接接头的可靠性最弱环模型。     

A new strategy for the numerical modeling of a weld pool

Welding processes involve high temperatures and metallurgical and mechanical consequences that must be controlled. For this purpose, numerical simulations have been developed to study the effects of the process on the final structure. During the welding process, the material undergoes thermal cycles that can generate different physical phenomena, like phase changes, microstructure changes and residual stresses and distortions. But the accurate simulation of transient temperature distributions in the part needs to carefully take account of the fluid flow in the weld pool. The aim of this paper is thus to propose a new approach for such a simulation taking account of surface tension effects (including both the “curvature effect” and the “Marangoni effect”), buoyancy forces and free surface motion.The proposed approach is validated by two numerical tests from the literature: a sloshing test and a plate subjected to a static heat source. Then, the effects of the fluid flow on temperature distributions are discussed in a hybrid laser/arc welding example.     

CTOD试验焊缝表面开缺口试样裂纹前沿平直度研究

对于裂纹尖端张开位移(CTOD)试验,焊缝试样中预制疲劳裂纹前沿平直度直接影响了试样制备的合格率,是试验的关键难题之一．试验中常对试样进行预处理以提高裂纹前沿平直度,但由此也使试验结果与实际情况产生一定差异．本文深入研究规范BS7448: Part2中对焊缝试样取样方向的规定,对表面开缺口试样裂纹尖端焊接残余应力进行分析,运用大型有限元软件ANSYS模拟90mm厚钢板焊接过程,求解了横向残余应力沿板厚方向及焊缝方向的分布规律,研究出横向残余应力分布是影响焊缝试样预制裂纹前沿平直度的主要原因,并通过试验进行验证．试验结果表明,表面开缺口试样可不经过局部韧带压缩等预处理而得到合格的裂纹前沿平直度,试验不改变原焊缝残余应力,可测得更加接近焊缝实际情况的CTOD韧度值,给CTOD试验中合理选取焊缝试样取样方向提供了新思路．