Photoacoustic and ultrasonic coimage with a linear transducer array

A technique is developed to simultaneously acquire ultrasound and photoacoustic (PA) images based on a linear transducer array. The system uses conventional ultrasound for rapid identification of potential targets. After a target is identified, the ultrasound echo and PA signals can be simultaneously obtained with optimized excitation and a signal collection sequence. The corresponding ultrasound impedance and optical absorption images are reconstructed with a phase-controlled algorithm. The approach can effectively reduce the artifacts associated with a conventional filter backprojection algorithm used in PA imaging by linear scanning. The technique provides a new approach for practical applications.     

Optimal focusing by spatio-temporal inverse filter. II. Experiments. Application to focusing through absorbing and reverberating media

To focus ultrasonic waves in an unknown heterogeneous medium using a phased array, one has to calculate the optimal set of signals to be applied on the transducers of the array. (In most applications of ultrasound, medical imaging, medical therapy, nondestructive testing, the first step consists of focusing a broadband ultrasound beam deeply inside the medium to be investigated.) Focusing in a homogeneous medium simply requires to compensate for the varying focus-array elements geometrical distances. Nevertheless, heterogeneities in the medium, in terms of speed of sound, density, or absorption, may strongly degrade the focusing. Different techniques have been developed in order to correct such aberrations induced by heterogeneous media (time reversal, speckle brightness, for example). In the companion to this paper, a new broadband focusing technique was investigated: the spatio-temporal inverse filter. Experimental results obtained in various media, such as reverberating and absorbing media, are presented here. In particular, intraplate echoes suppression and high-quality focusing through a human skull, as well as hyper-resolution in a reverberating medium, will be shown. It is important to notice that all these experiments were performed with fully programmable multichannel electronics whose use is required to fully exploit the spatio-temporal technique.     

Sensitive interferometric detection of ultrasound for minimally invasive clinical imaging applications

Miniaturized optical detectors of ultrasound represent a promising alternative to piezoelectric technology and may enable new minimally invasive clinical applications, particularly in the field of optoacoustic imaging. However, the use of such detectors has so far been limited to controlled lab environments, and has not been demonstrated in the presence of mechanical disturbances, common in clinical imaging scenarios. Additionally, detection sensitivity has been inherently limited by laser noise, which hindered the use of sensing elements such as optical fibers, which exhibit a weak response to ultrasound. In this work, coherence‐restored pulse interferometry (CRPI) is introduced – a new paradigm for interferometric sensing in which shot‐noise limited sensitivity may be achieved alongside robust operation. CRPI is implemented with a fiber‐based resonator, demonstrating over an order of magnitude higher sensitivity than that of conventional 15 MHz intravascular ultrasound probes. The performance of the optical detector is showcased in a miniaturized all‐optical optoacoustic imaging catheter.     

Miniature array postdetection-encoded MRI

A method for performing nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements simultaneously from more than a single radiofrequency (RF) coil is presented. The method employs the detection of magnetic resonance signals in an array of detectors, where each detector is responsible for detecting a unique frequency bandwidth or a magnetic resonance signal from a unique location in a region in a primary, substantially homogeneous, static magnetic field. The detectors may be separated logically into groups, whereby all the detectors in a given group are essentially RF-decoupled from each other to substantially eliminate cross-talk by switching circuits or by being placed from each other sufficiently remotely. Sampling of detected signals from detectors in this array is done simultaneously over groups of noninteracting detectors. The detected signals from all detectors in a given group are simultaneously transmitted to a single preamplifier, thus increasing significantly the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in that preamplifier. Prior to transmitting each detected NMR signal of each detector to the preamplifier, each detected signal is separately and uniquely encoded electronically. This provides a method whereby the signal of each detector is uniquely encoded. Accumulating all these encoded signals, which were simultaneously received in a number of RF detectors into a single amplifier, results in the total signal having a high SNR ratio. This total amplified signal is later decoded into each detector's original signal by a decoding circuitry. Conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques may be thereafter applied to obtain an image. Or else, conventional NMR techniques may be thereafter applied to obtain an improved SNR from a sample, using a single preamplifier with a multitude of detectors. Applying this method to a large number of miniature and closely packed RF detectors placed in an array-like configuration results in an MRI technique with a very fast acquisition time, an increased SNR and a high spatial resolution equivalent to the number of detectors per unit of length. Deblurring and decoupling algorithms allow for images from layers as deep as 6 mm to be acquired.     

Beam position estimation by means of detector arrays

The application of detector arrays for the estimation of optical beam position is considered. An estimation algorithm is synthesised, and estimator performance is analysed. Estimator performance depends on the number of detectors in the array and on the received radiation and its associated shot noise. It is shown that by choosing an appropriate number of detectors in the array, the designer can always drive the estimator into shot-noise-limited operation. In this case, the performance may be either quantum-limited or background-noise limited, depending on the energy of the optical beam and on the background field.     

T-ray computed tomography

We demonstrate a tomographic imaging modality that uses pulsed terahertz (THz) radiation to probe the optical properties of three-dimensional (3D) structures in the far-infrared. This THz-wave computed tomography (T-ray CT) system provides sectional images of objects in a manner analogous to conventional CT techniques such as x-ray CT. The transmitted amplitude and phase of broadband pulses of THz radiation are measured at multiple projection angles. The filtered backprojection algorithm is then used to reconstruct the target object, including both its 3D structure and its frequency-dependent far-infrared optical properties.     

Target azimuth estimation by means of optical detector arrays

Estimation of a target azimuth by means of arrays of optical detectors is investigated. A maximum likelihood algorithm of estimation is developed, and simpler suboptimum algorithms are described. The performance of the maximum likelihood estimator is analysed. It is shown that for a small detector beamwidth the array accuracy becomes an oscillating function of the target azimuth. The minimum accuracyà depends on the detector beamwidth and onN, the number of detectors in the array. The largerN, the largerÃ; with a givenN, the optimum beamwidth which provides maximum accuracy can be found. The optimum beamwidth implies 100% overlapping of the detector beams, i.e., the semiangle of detector sensitivity should equal the angular separation of the detectors.     

Demonstration of a spatial-spectral holographic LIDAR range-Doppler processor

We present a new approach to laser interferometric Doppler and ranging (LIDAR) processing using spatial-spectral holography (SSH). In this approach, broadband optical signals from a random noise or frequency-modulated laser are transmitted and reflected off remote targets. The return signals interfere spatially and spectrally with a local copy of the original transmit signal in an SSH medium, resulting in spectral gratings that have a spectral period inversely proportional to the LIDAR target's range and a position proportional to the target's Doppler (or velocity). These gratings are subsequently read out by a slowly chirped source onto a parallel detector array, and the velocity and range of the targets are inferred. We present the theoretical framework that describes the function of the LIDAR processor, as well as proof-of-concept experimental results.     

Three-dimensional optical measurement of instantaneous pressure

Local perturbations in material density induced in a material by a compressional wave give rise to local perturbations in refractive index. Accurate, high-resolution, three-dimensional, optical measurements of an instantaneous refractive index perturbation in a homogeneous, optically transparent medium may be obtained from measurements of scattered optical intensity alone. The method of generalized projections allows incorporation of optical intensity measurements into an iterative algorithm for computing the phase of the interrogating optical pulse as the solution of a fixed point equation. The complex optical field amplitude, computed in this manner, is unique up to a constant unit magnitude complex coefficient. The three-dimensional refractive index distribution may be computed via the Fourier slice reconstruction algorithm from the optical phase data under the assumption of weak optical scattering. The refractive index perturbation is related to local instantaneous pressure under a linear, small-displacement model for the mechanical wave. A numerical simulation of the measurement experiment, phase recovery, and reconstruction process for a plane piston ultrasound transducer with a semicircular aperture and center frequency of 1.5 MHz is described and corresponds very well with experiment. Experimental data obtained using an 810-nm laser source are used to reconstruct the three-dimensional pressure field from two elements of a 2.5-MHz linear array. Comparison with a measurement obtained via a 500-microm needle hydrophone shows excellent agreement.     

Replicated data-matrix array generators

The fabrication and replication of binary spot array generators using 4 and 16 levels gratings is investigated. The elements are designed using iterative Fourier transform algorithm and fabricated by electron-beam lithography. Finally elements are copied by fabricating nickel shims and using hot embossing technique. In each step the optical signals are measured and signals are characterized using bit error rate as a measure of quality. The results show that although 16 level element gives theoretically superior performance, the bit error rate is much lower (∼0.2%) for replicated 4 level elements than for their 16 level counterparts (∼9%).     

Fiber optic bundle array wide field-of-view optical receiver for free space optical communications

We propose a design for a free space optical communications (FSOC) receiver terminal that offers an improved field of view (FOV) in comparison to conventional FSOC receivers. The design utilizes a microlens to couple the incident optical signal into an individual fiber in a bundle routed to remote optical detectors. Each fiber in the bundle collects power from a solid angle of space; utilizing multiple fibers enhances the total FOV of the receiver over typical single-fiber designs. The microlens-to-fiber-bundle design is scalable and modular and can be replicated in an array to increase aperture size. The microlens is moved laterally with a piezoelectric transducer to optimize power coupling into a given fiber core in the bundle as the source appears to move due to relative motion between the transmitter and receiver. The optimum position of the lens array is determined via a feedback loop whose input is derived from a position sensing detector behind another lens. Light coupled into like fibers in each array cell is optically combined (in fiber) before illuminating discrete detectors.     

A measurement-domain adaptive beamforming approach for ultrasound instrument based on distributed compressed sensing: Initial development

High efficient acquisition of the sensor array signals and accurate reconstruction of the backscattering medium are important issues in ultrasound imaging instrument. This paper presents a novel measurement-domain adaptive beamforming approach (MABF) based on distributed compressed sensing (DCS) which seeks to simultaneously measure signals that are each individually sparse in some domain(s) and also mutually correlated with much few measurements under the Nyquist rate. Instead of sampling conventional backscattering signals at the Nyquist rate, few linear projections of the returned signal with random vectors are taken as measurements, which can reduce the amount of samples per channel greatly and makes the real-time transmission of sensor array data possible. Then high resolution ultrasound image is reconstructed from the few measurements of DCS directly by the proposed MABF algorithm without recovering the raw sensor signals with complex convex optimization algorithm. The simulated results show the effectiveness of the proposed method.     

Blind deconvolution for robust signal estimation and approximate source localization

Synthetic time reversal (STR) is a technique for blind deconvolution in an unknown multipath environment that relies on generic features (rays or modes) of multipath sound propagation. This paper describes how ray-based STR signal estimates may be improved and how ray-based STR sound-channel impulse-response estimates may be exploited for approximate source localization in underwater environments. Findings are based on simulations and underwater experiments involving source-array ranges from 100 m to 1 km in 60 -m-deep water and chirp signals with a bandwidth of 1.5-4.0 kHz. Signal estimation performance is quantified by the correlation coefficient between the source-broadcast and the STR-estimated signals for a variable number N of array elements, 2 ≤ N ≤ 32, and a range of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), -5 dB ≤ SNR ≤ 30 dB. At high SNR, STR-estimated signals are found to have cross-correlation coefficients of ～90% with as few as four array elements, and similar performance may be achieved at a SNR of nearly 0 dB with 32 array elements. When the broadband STR-estimated impulse response is used for source localization via a simple ray-based backpropagation scheme, the results are less ambiguous than those obtained from conventional broadband matched field processing.     

浅海非均匀水平阵宽带声场信号无源孔径扩展

大孔径水平阵对于浅海低频水声物理实验研究和应用至关重要,然而受实际情况制约,通常使用的水平基阵孔径十分有限,通过孔径扩展处理来扩展基阵孔径是一条重要途径。传统的无源孔径扩展方法是建立在均匀线阵、匀速相对运动和相干窄带连续信号的基础上的,难以适用于非均匀阵以及非连续宽带声源的情况。针对这些问题,提出了非均匀阵宽带声场信号的无源孔径扩展方法。使用静止布设在海底的非均匀水平短阵接收运动声源重复发射的宽带声信号,先开展均匀空间插值,然后在阵元域和波束域进行宽带扩展孔径处理。仿真和实验结果表明,在水深约70 m的浅海波导环境中,纵向间隔27.5 m的2个阵元接收20~200 Hz宽带声场,其空间插值结果与真值的相关系数大于0.99,说明宽带声场插值方法的合理性。在水平非均匀、纵向孔径250 m的短阵接收声场无法分析简正波频散特征的情况下,仿真和实验数据经过宽带无源孔径扩展处理得到孔径大于1 km的均匀线阵的声场,能高分辨区分各阶简正波,证明所提方法是有效的。      

RECIPROCITY IN SIMULATIONS OF BOLOMETRIC DETECTORS IN TRANSMITTING MODE

Bolometric detectors used in radio-astronomical instruments such as the ESA Planck Surveyor, operate as incoherent receivers of electromagnetic radiation. Meanwhile, the optical (quasi-optical) parts of the instruments (feed horns, telescope mirrors) are conventionally designed in transmitting mode when a coherent source of radiation (supposedly, equivalent to the bolometric detector) replaces the detector and radiates the electromagnetic waves through the optical system to the sky. The rules of reciprocity in such a replacement of a detector by an “equivalent transmitter” located in a lossy (open) structure (a bolometric cavity coupled via the feed horn with the outer space) are not obvious and usually ignored. A conventional simplistic approach used in this problem may cause errors in the design of such systems. By considering simple, analytically solvable models that simulate bolometric detectors surrounded by some structures, we find the rules of reciprocity providing the necessary equivalence in replacing the receiver by an appropriate transmitter as needed for the rigorous simulations of infrared and submillimetre-wave bolometric systems.     

Experimental evaluation of time domain models for ultrasound attenuation losses in photoacoustic imaging

Understanding and compensating ultrasound attenuation losses is an important issue in photoacoustic imaging. To contribute to this effort, simulated attenuated time domain waveforms are compared to experimental waveforms. The experimental waveforms are acquired by transmitting broadband ultrasound pulses through distilled water and porcine fat tissue. Three well-known modeling approaches are examined in detail with regard to accuracy and computation time. Furthermore, the influence of attenuation on imaging resolution is addressed. In the present paper, the focus lies on the calculation of attenuated detector signals. The results, however, also provide clues about the quality of image reconstruction.     

虚拟时间反转水声信号检测

针对目标辐射声信号特性未知的情况,在不增加额外水声换能器的条件下,研究提高水听器阵列对水声信号检测性能的方法。首先,按照经典二元检测问题处理方法分析了常规能量检测方法的性能,在此基础上,根据虚拟时间反转处理原理,对处理后的信号构建检测统计量,推导得到了虚拟时间反转检测方法的理论门限和检测性能的表达式,并通过与常规能量检测的对比分析了虚拟时间反转检测的处理增益。使用计算机仿真实验从声源频率、接收阵列阵元数、目标距离与深度等方面分析了两种方法的检测性能。结果表明,所提出的算法相对于常规能量检测算法在性能上有显著优势,且接收阵元数是对算法性能影响最为明显的因素。      

Holographic data storage with arbitrarily misaligned data pages

An improved postprocessing algorithm that can compensate for arbitrary misregistrations between a detector array and the coherent image of a pixelated two-dimensional data page is described. Previously [Opt. Lett. 26, 542 (2001)], an algorithm was reported in which both linear and quadratic interpixel cross-talk contributions are reallocated to the appropriate neighboring pixels. However, page misalignments close to +/-0.5 pixels could not be corrected to an acceptable bit-error rate because of propagation in the iterative procedure. An improved algorithm is reported in which an intentional magnification error is introduced optically and then corrected during postprocessing. Experimental results from a pixel-matched megapel volume holographic system are presented, showing that the dependence of bit-error rate on transverse detector alignment is entirely removed. This improved procedure can completely bypass constraints on page registration, optical distortion, and material shrinkage that currently hamper page-oriented holographic storage systems.     

Ultrasound reflection tomography of cylindrical rods

A new technique has been developed for carrying out real-time ultrasound reflection tomography using cylindrically diverging beams with highly damped broadband probes. The carrier information of the pulse is dispensed with and only the peak of the rectified rf pulse and its corresponding time of arrival are used for the reconstruction. A simple deconvolution filter is applied to remove the blurring caused by simple backprojection. Experimental images show resolution of wavelength order in all directions. Phantom test objects have been correctly imaged. Images of real defects (voids and cracks) in polyester resin rod samples obtained using compression waves are presented.     

利用二维杨-顾算法设计非对称结构衍射光学元件

杨 顾算法是一种设计衍射光学元件的相位恢复方法。在大多数文献中,主要用它来设计一维衍射光学元件和具有旋转对称结构的二维衍射光学元件,故在此称之为一维杨 顾算法。二维杨 顾算法可用来设计任意结构的二维衍射光学元件。在基于非幺正变换光学系统中,用振幅 相位恢复理论建立了二维杨 顾算法的数学模型,给出了迭代算法。利用自编的仿真程序包设计了一个具有非对称结构的衍射相位元件。