Monte Carlo simulation of spectral reflectance using a multilayered skin tissue model

A nine-layered skin tissue model is newly developed for the Monte Carlo simulation of spectral reflectance. The derivation of the necessary parameters for each of the nine layers in the simulation is presented, in which the parameters used in the conventional three-layered model are modified on the basis of some histological findings on skin and reported examples. Using appropriate optical and geometrical parameters, simulated spectra can be produced that agree well with measured spectra. This approach provides a flexible means of spectral fitting to measured results and of estimating changes in the parameters of skin tissue.     

Multiple-reflection model of human skin and estimation of pigment concentrations

We describe a new method for estimating the concentrations of pigments in the human skin using surface spectral reflectance. We derive an equation that expresses the surface spectral reflectance of the human skin. First, we propose an optical model of the human skin that accounts for the stratum corneum. We also consider the difference between the scattering coefficient of the epidermis and that of the dermis. We then derive an equation by applying the Kubelka-Munk theory to an optical model of the human skin. Unlike a model developed in a recent study, the present equation considers pigments as well as multiple reflections and the thicknesses of the skin layers as factors that affect the color of the human skin. In two experiments, we estimate the pigment concentrations using the measured surface spectral reflectances. Finally, we confirm the feasibility of the concentrations estimated by the proposed method by evaluating the estimated pigment concentrations in the skin.     

Analysis of skin surface roughness by visual assessment and surface measurement

In this study, we analyze the surface roughness of human skin using human visual assessment and statistical features of three-dimensional shape data and goniometric reflectance data. We use eight skin replicas taken from the cheeks of women. First, we perform human visual assessment to obtain the roughness rankings. Second, we measure three roughness parameters by currently used methods. These parameters show no significant correlation with the roughness rankings. Third, we measure the skin surface shape to calculate surface normal vectors. We show that the surface normal distribution of the skin is isotropic and Gaussian, and the standard deviation has a good correlation with the roughness rankings. Finally, we analyze the goniometric reflectance data to approximate the surface reflection using the Oren-Nayar model. We find that the standard deviation estimated using this model corresponds to the roughness rankings. Thus, this parameter can be effectively used for describing skin roughness.     

不同的光透明剂对在体人皮肤组织光学透明的反射光谱研究

研究了经三种不同类型的透明剂处理后的在体人皮组织在波长为400～1 000 nm范围内随时间变化反射光谱特性的变化及各组于580 nm处分别在0～60 min时间段各组反射光谱的改变程度.实验采用USB-4000光纤光谱仪分别获取经丙三醇、葡萄糖及丙二醇处理在体人皮肤组织前后的在0,10,20,30,40,50和60 ...     

Determination of human skin optical properties in vivo from reflectance spectroscopic measurements

A novel approach has been proved to quickly and non-invasively determine the optical properties of human skin in vivo. It is based on the diffuse reflectance approximation model and subjected to the well established library of absorption spectra of water and hemoglobin. Under the nonlinear least-square algorithm, fitting the measured spectra in the range of 400-1000 nm to the diffusion approximation model, the reduced scattering coefficient and absorption coefficient of skin tissue can be quickly determined in vivo. The results show that this method is convenient and suitable for the real-time clinical application.     

Characteristics of light scattering by normal and modified areas of skin tissue

Results from numerical calculations and experimental studies of the optical backscattering coefficients and changes in the polarization characteristics of normal and modified (birthmark, scar) skin tissue structures are presented. It is shown that determining the Mueller matrix is an effective way of detecting changes in the structure of skin tissue in vivo which reflects changes in the depolarization of light by an object for different polarization parameters of the incident (probe) radiation. The depolarization of light is found to be symmetric for normal areas of skin and antisymmetric for skin tissue with a modified structure. It is proposed that the polarization characteristics of scattered radiation be used in detecting damaged areas of skin tissue.     

A portable system for noninvasive assessment of advanced glycation end-products using skin fluorescence and reflectance spectrum

An optical system has been developed for noninvasive assessment of skin advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). The system comprises mainly a high-power ultraviolet light emitting diode (LED) as an excitation source, an LED array for the reflectance measurement, a trifurcated fiber-optic probe for light transmitting and receiving, and a compact spectrometer for light detecting. Both skin fluorescence of a subject and the reflectance spectrum of the same site can be obtained in a single measurement with the system. Demonstrative measurements with the system have been conducted. Results indicate that the measured reflectance spectrum can be used to compensate for the distortion of AGEs fluorescence, which is caused by skin absorption and scattering. The system is noninvasive, portable, easy to operate, and has potential applications for clinical diagnosis of AGE-related diseases, especially diabetes mellitus.     

Noninvasive determination of absorption coefficient and reduced scattering coefficient of human skin tissues in vivo with oblique-incidence reflectometry

A spatial distribution of diffuse reflectance produced by obliquely incident light is not centered about the point of light entry. The value of shift in the center of diffuse reflectance is directly related to the absorption coefficient μa and the effective attenuation coefficient μeff. μa and the reduced scattering coefficient μ's of human skin tissues in vivo are measured by oblique-incidence reflectometry based on the two-source diffuse theory model. For ten Chinese volunteers aged 15-63 years, μa and μ's are noninvasively determined to be 0.029 - 0.075 and 0.52 - 0.97 mm-1, respectively.     

Depth visualization of a local blood region in skin tissue by use of diffuse reflectance images

A simple method is proposed for visualizing the depth distribution of a local blood region in skin tissue by using diffuse reflectance images at two isosbestic wavelengths of hemoglobin, 420 and 585 nm. Monte Carlo simulation of light transport specifies a relation between optical densities and the depth of the region under given concentrations of melanin in the epidermis and blood in the dermis. Phantom and in vivo experiments were performed to show the usefulness of the method.     

Development of non-deterioration-type skin tissue phantom using silicone material

We developed a new type of three-layered skin tissue phantom using silicone material. This phantom maintains its optical properties in a certain period of time, typically about three months, which is much longer than about 30 min with our previous agar-type phantom. Experiments on spectral reflectance measurements and color analysis indicate the possibility of silicone-type skin tissue phantom.     

Analytical model of phototherapy for neonatal jaundice. Influence of bilirubin kinetics on skin colour during phototherapy

Summary Recent progress in diode-array detector technology and signal processing methods, and in the optical modelling of tissues allow: i) real-time, multispectral analysis of reflected spectra with relatively simple and compact devices; and ii) improved correlations between reflectance spectra and pigment distribution in tissues. Second-generation transcutaneous bilirubinometers relying on the changes in the optical properties of the skin at selected wavelengths due to changes in its optical components are being developed. To extend the use of transcutaneous bilirubinometry to the phototherapy cycle, the modelling of the complex mechanisms of bilirubin photochemistry and metabolism in the various body compartments is required. As a first step toward this aim, the influence of bilirubin photochemistry occurring during the initial stage of phototherapy on the reflectance spectrum of an icteric tissue is analysed. A four-layer model is assumed. The transformation of bilirubin into its configurational isomers is considered in detail, while the role of the structural isomer on bilirubin elimination is taken into account with a loss term in the equation of motion of bilirubin concentration. The phototherapeutic process makes the illumination in the bile pigment layer depend on time. However, in the specific cases here considered, this time variation is negligible, and the differential equations describing the time evolution of bile pigment concentrations can be solved in a closed form. The bilirubin kinetics produces significant changes of the diffuse reflectance spectra during phototherapy, and the difference of the colour after the phototherapeutic treatment of a known duration can be put in close correspondence with the model of the jaundiced skin and permits quantitative estimates of pigment concentrations.     

Evaluation of light scattering properties and chromophore concentrations in skin tissue based on diffuse reflectance signals at isosbestic wavelengths of hemoglobin

Optical Review - We investigate a method to evaluate light-scattering properties and chromophore concentrations in human skin tissue through diffuse reflectance spectroscopy using the reflectance...     

Optical path-length matrix method for estimating skin spectrum

In this article, we propose a new method??the optical path-length matrix method (OPLM)??as a faster alternative to the Monte Carlo for multi-layered media (MCML), which is often used to simulate the skin spectrum. Theoretically, peripheral oxygen saturation can be estimated by iterating MCML, but it is not a realistic strategy because it requires huge computation time. The optical path-length matrix is obtained as the probabilistic density histograms of the optical path length in skin using MCML, and once the matrix is obtained, skin spectral reflectance can be calculated by accumulating all combinations of elements in the matrix and by setting an absorption coefficient based on the Beer-Lambert law. The computational time of OPLM was approximately 26,000 times faster than that of MCML.     

光谱技术检测鲜红斑痣病变程度的MC模拟

在分析鲜红斑痣病理的基础上,根据病变程度改变真皮上层血液层的厚度,并建立相应的光学模型,确定其组织光学参数.通过Monte Carlo模拟,得出：鲜红斑痣皮肤反射光谱与荧光光谱均可反映鲜红斑痣皮肤病变程度,特别是血管直径的变化;当血管直径增大时,鲜红斑痣皮肤反射光谱反射率与荧光光谱强度均明显下降.研究表明反射光谱和荧光光谱可能应用于判断或分析鲜红斑痣皮肤的病变程度,从而为鲜红斑痣的临床治疗方案及治疗效果提供参考.     

Noninvasive spectral imaging of skin chromophores based on multiple regression analysis aided by Monte Carlo simulation

In order to visualize melanin and blood concentrations and oxygen saturation in human skin tissue, a simple imaging technique based on multispectral diffuse reflectance images acquired at six wavelengths (500, 520, 540, 560, 580 and 600 nm) was developed. The technique utilizes multiple regression analysis aided by Monte Carlo simulation for diffuse reflectance spectra. Using the absorbance spectrum as a response variable and the extinction coefficients of melanin, oxygenated hemoglobin, and deoxygenated hemoglobin as predictor variables, multiple regression analysis provides regression coefficients. Concentrations of melanin and total blood are then determined from the regression coefficients using conversion vectors that are deduced numerically in advance, while oxygen saturation is obtained directly from the regression coefficients. Experiments with a tissue-like agar gel phantom validated the method. In vivo experiments with human skin of the human hand during upper limb occlusion and of the inner forearm exposed to UV irradiation demonstrated the ability of the method to evaluate physiological reactions of human skin tissue.     

Evaluation of skin optical clearing enhancement with Azone as a penetration enhancer

In order to find a non-invasive way to improve the efficacy of skin optical clearing with topically applied optical clearing agents (OCA), we evaluated the effect of Azone as a chemical penetration enhancer on optical clearing of intact skin in vitro. Fresh porcine skin with topical application of glycerol (G) mixed with various concentrations of water-soluble Azone (A_w) or propylene glycol (PG) mixed with oil-soluble Azone (A_o) was investigated. We measured changes in optical transmittance and diffuse reflectance of the skin under treatment with a near-infrared spectrophotometer. Light transmittance at 1276 nm increased by 37.3% and 41.1% at 60 min after the treatment in the cases with 40%PG5%A_o and 40%G5%A_w, respectively. Diffuse reflectance at 1066 nm decreased by 20.6% and 29.3% at 60 min after the treatment with 40%PG5%A_o and 40%G5%A_w, respectively. Forty percent glycerol or propylene glycol with the addition of Azone could achieve the same optical clearing effect as 80% glycerol. The results indicated that skin optical clearing with the topical application of glycerol and propylene glycol was markedly enhanced by both water-soluble and oil-soluble Azone. Skin penetration enhancing effect of Azone accounts probably for the skin clearing enhancement. In addition, Azone itself has shown optical clearing capability.     

深度分辨漫反射测量光纤探头设计及特性

漫反射光谱人体成分检测研究中,光纤探头接收漫反射光子穿透深度及传输路径对检测效率及灵敏度影响较大,而传统的检测光纤探头无法实现对特定深度漫反射光子选择性接收。针对人体成分检测需要,提出了采用一定入射-接收角度及半球透镜耦合的漫反射测量光纤探头结构。在三层皮肤模型基础上,结合光纤探头形式改进Monte Carlo程序,计算光纤探头接收漫反射光子穿透深度,有效光子比例,有效信息载荷以及真皮层检测灵敏度。结果表明,设计的光纤探头可实现真皮层漫反射光子选择性接收,检测效率以及测量光谱受非目标层组织结构及光学参数影响较小,可有效提高人体成分无创检测灵敏度。     

Absorption spectra and light penetration depth of normal and pathologically altered human skin

A three-layered skin model (stratum corneum, epidermis, and dermis) and engineering formulas for radiative transfer theory are used to study absorption spectra and light penetration depths of normal and pathologically altered skin. The formulas include small-angle and asymptotic approximations and a layer-addition method. These characteristics are calculated for wavelengths used for low-intensity laser therapy. We examined several pathologies such as vitiligo, edema, erythematosus lupus, and subcutaneous wound, for which the bulk concentrations of melanin and blood vessels or tissue structure (for subcutaneous wound) change compared with normal skin. The penetration depth spectrum is very similar to the inverted blood absorption spectrum. In other words, the depth is minimal at blood absorption maxima. The calculated absorption spectra enable the power and irradiation wavelength providing the required light effect to be selected. Relationships between the penetration depth and the diffuse reflectance coefficient of skin (unambiguously expressed through the absorption coefficient) are analyzed at different wavelengths. This makes it possible to find relationships between the light fields inside and outside the tissue. __________ Translated from Zhurnal Prikladnoi Spektroskopii Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 387–394, May–June, 2007.     

A polynomial hybrid reflection model and measurement of its parameters based on images of sample

Reflectance model is a basic concept in computer vision. Some existing models combining the classical diffuse reflectance model and those for surfaces containing specular components can approximately describe real reflectance. But the ratio of diffuse and specular reflection decided manually has no clear meaning.We propose a new polynomial hybrid reflectance model. The reflectance map equation with a known shape (for example cylinder) as a sample is used to estimate parameters of the proposed reflectance model by least square regression algorithm. Then the reflectance parameters for surfaces of the same class of materials can be determined. Experiments are performed for a metal surface. The synthesis images produced by the proposed method and existing ones are compared with the real acquired image, and the results show that the proposed reflectance model is suitable for describing real reflectance.     

Modified Spectral Neugebauer Model for Printer Characterization

Spectral Neugebauer model is widely used for spectral reflectance prediction during printer characterization. However, several factors reduce the predication precision. Thus, an improved cellular Yule-Nielson spectral Neugebauer (CYNSN) model is proposed, which modifies the traditional spectral Neugebauer model in three main aspects: (1) First, in order to adjust the nonlinearities between the predicated and measured spectral reflectance, an iteratively calculated Yule-Nielson exponent is added to the reflectance values within the Neugebauer equations. (2) Second, the quantity of Neugebauer primaries is increased by dividing the CMY colorant space into 4³ uniform cellular subdomains. (3) Third, the mapping functions are developed to map the area coverages' theoretical values to their effective values within the subdomains, and the mapped values highly improve the matching degree of the predicated and measured reflectance values. In the experiment, four related spectral Neugebauer models are employed during printer characterization, which are the traditional spectral Neugebauer model, Yule-Nielson spectral Neugebauer (YNSN) model, traditional CYNSN model, and the modified CYNSN model, respectively. And the experimental results show the modified CYNSN model yields a significant improvement over the other spectral Neugebauer models, by comparing the characterization errors in the form of colorimetry and spectroscopy.