Improved prediction of the turbulence-shear contribution to wind noise pressure spectra

In previous research [Raspet et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 123(3), 1260-1269 (2008)], predictions of the low frequency turbulence-turbulence and turbulence-mean shear interaction pressure spectra measured by a large wind screen were developed and compared to the spectra measured using large spherical wind screens in the flow. The predictions and measurements agreed well except at very low frequencies where the turbulence-mean shear contribution dominated the turbulence-turbulence interaction pressure. In this region the predicted turbulence-mean shear interaction pressure did not show consistent agreement with microphone measurements. The predicted levels were often much larger than the measured results. This paper applies methods developed to predict the turbulence-shear interaction pressure measured at the ground [Yu et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 129(2), 622-632 (2011)] to improve the prediction of the turbulence-shear interaction pressure above the ground surface by incorporating a realistic wind velocity profile and realistic turbulence anisotropy. The revised prediction of the turbulence-shear interaction pressure spectra compares favorably with wind-screen microphone measurements in large wind screens at low frequency.     

Low frequency wind noise contributions in measurement microphones

In a previous paper [R. Raspet, et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 119, 834-843 (2006)], a method was introduced to predict upper and lower bounds for wind noise measured in spherical wind-screens from the measured incident velocity spectra. That paper was restricted in that the predictions were only valid within the inertial range of the incident turbulence, and the data were from a measurement not specifically designed to test the predictions. This paper extends the previous predictions into the source region of the atmospheric wind turbulence, and compares the predictions to measurements made with a large range of wind-screen sizes. Predictions for the turbulence-turbulence interaction pressure spectrum as well as the stagnation pressure fluctuation spectrum are calculated from a form fit to the velocity fluctuation spectrum. While the predictions for turbulence-turbulence interaction agree well with measurements made within large (1.0 m) wind-screens, and the stagnation pressure predictions agree well with unscreened gridded microphone measurements, the mean shear-turbulence interaction spectra do not consistently appear in measurements.     

Measurement of wind noise levels in streamlined probes

This paper investigates the wind noise pressure spectra measured by aerodynamically designed devices in turbulent flow. Such measurement probes are often used in acoustic measurements in wind tunnels to reduce the pressure fluctuations generated by the interaction of the devices with the incident flow. When placed in an outdoor turbulent environment however, their performance declines noticeably. It is hypothesized that these devices are measuring the stagnation pressures generated by the cross flow components of the turbulence. Predictions for the cross flow contribution to the stagnation pressure spectra based on measured velocity spectra are developed, and are then compared to the measured pressure spectra in four different probe type devices in windy conditions outdoors. The predictions agree well with the measurements and show that the cross flow contamination coefficient is on the order of 0.5 in outdoor turbulent flows in contrast to the published value of 0.15 for measurements in a turbulent jet indoors.     

The flow noise level at microphones in flow ducts

When sound measurements are made in flow ducts one has to insure that the signal-to-noise ratio of the sound signal to the flow noise, which is produced by the turbulent flow at the microphone, is sufficiently high. To accomplish this, knowledge of the flow noise level under the specific given flow conditions is required. In this paper two procedures for determining the flow noise level are described. For the first method, the mean flow velocity and the turbulence level have to be known to estimate the flow noise level as a function of duct diameter and frequency. For the second method knowledge of only the mean flow velocity is required. The procedure involves two measurements: one with a microphone fitted with a conventional nose cone and one with a microphone fitted with a slit-tube. The slit-tube is a special device for reducing the flow noise level. Finally, guidelines are given for sound measurements in the presence of flow and for the use of a microphone with a slit-tube under unusual temperature conditions or in gases other than air.     

Sound radiation from inflow turbulence in axial flow fans

The sound radiated when inflow turbulence is present in axial flow fans has been investigated. Theoretically, two noise radiating mechanisms can be identified: (i) interaction of turbulence with the rotor potential field results in a quadrupole-type volume source distribution, producing “flow-interaction” noise; (ii) impingement of turbulence on the blades results in a dipole-type (fluctuating force) surface source distribution, producing “fluctuating lift” noise. A theoretical expression for the flow interaction sound power in the upstream radiation field has been developed, in terms of parameters that can be experimentally determined by near field flow measurements involving spatial cross-correlations of the fluctuating axial velocity, with respect to both radial and circumferential position. Both these measurements and radiated sound pressure measurements have been made for eight- and ten-bladed rotors of relatively low tip Mach number (< 0·3). The sound pressure measurements revealed the occurrence of band-spreading of discrete tones at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics, as would be theoretically predicted for quadrupole-type sources here. The theoretical predictions and the measurements, respectively, of the sound power radiated upstream were compared. The results indicated that, for the fans tested, the “fluctuating lift” noise strongly predominated over the “flow-interaction” noise. The observed sound power levels were consistent with levels estimated from the theory.     

Reynolds number effects on flow/acoustic mechanisms in spherical windscreens

There is a practical need to fully understand the mechanisms involved in the flow/pressure fluctuations around a screened microphone. A stream of uniform flow with low-frequency turbulence encountering a rigid, impermeable spherical windscreen is considered in this study. Pressure distributions on the surface of the sphere are determined by the flow structure. Pressure fluctuations at the center of the sphere are then calculated based on the integration of surface pressure distributions. Because of the low-frequency assumption, results from steady-state laminar flows can be used to investigate the Reynolds number effects on wind noise reduction. Three types of flow have been studied in this paper: an inviscid case, a low-Reynolds-number Stokes flow, and intermediate- and high-Reynolds-number flows. A Reynolds-number/wind-noise-reduction correlation shows that the wind noise reduction increases with decreasing Reynolds number.     

The prediction of broadband noise from wind turbines

This paper describes a broadband noise prediction scheme for wind turbines. The source mechanisms included in the method are unsteady lift noise, unsteady thickness noise, trailing edge noise and the noise from separated flow. Special methods have been developed to model the inflow turbulence from the atmospheric boundary layer and acoustic radiation to the geometric near field of the rotor. Predictions are compared with measurements on 20 m and 80 m diameter wind turbines. The results show that the turbulence length scale in the atmospheric boundary layer is too large to give the measured noise levels. Very good agreement is obtained between predictions and measurements if the turbulence length scale is taken to be equal to the blade chord.     

抑制风噪装置的实验

本文基于风噪原理提出了一种抗风噪结构设计,来抑制传声器拾取风噪。该设计由渐变管道和填充泡棉的腔体两部分组成。渐变管道用来降低气流流速,填充泡棉的腔体用来充当声屏障。COMSOL有限元仿真验证了渐变管道降低流速的能力,风噪实验证明了该设计能有效地抑制风噪。讨论了关键因素对该结构抗风噪能力的影响：大的腔体,小的渐变管道等效直径和高的泡棉密度,都有利于抗风噪效果。最后,基于声传输线和等效电路理论,建立了声波经过该抗风噪结构的传递损失模型。基于该模型和高频不失真条件,提出了抗风噪结构的尺寸设计指标。     

A computational study of the effect of windscreen shape and flow resistivity on turbulent wind noise reduction

In this paper, numerical simulations are used to study the turbulent wind noise reduction effect of microphone windscreens with varying shapes and flow resistivities. Typical windscreen shapes consisting of circular, elliptical, and rectangular cylinders are investigated. A turbulent environment is generated by placing a solid circular cylinder upstream of the microphone. An immersed-boundary method with a fifth-order weighted essentially non-oscillatory scheme is implemented to enhance the simulation accuracy for high-Reynolds number flow around the solid cylinder as well as at the interface between the open air and the porous material comprising the windscreen. The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible flow are solved in the open air. For the flow inside the porous material, a modified form of the Zwikker-Kosten equation is solved. The results show that, on average, the circular and horizontal ellipse windscreens have similar overall wind noise reduction performance, while the horizontal ellipse windscreen with medium flow resistivity provides the most effective wind noise reduction among all the considered cases. The vertical ellipse windscreen with high flow resistivity, in particular, increases the wind noise because of increased self-generation of turbulence.     

Nature of inlet turbulence and strut flow disturbances and their effect on turbomachinery rotor noise

Results of an investigation in which turbomachinery rotor sound spectra were correlated with aerodynamic measurements of the inlet turbulence, strut wake, and vortex flow strengths are reported. Aerodynamic measurements included mean velocity profiles, turbulence intensity, and axial length scales. Inlet turbulence data indicate that the major effect of flow contraction appears to be the elongation of turbulent eddies. Eddies of this size dominate the blade passing frequency (BPF) tones. Decreasing eddy size by use of a grid revealed vortex flow strength to be the second major sound source. A doubling of vortex flow strength produced a 6 dB increase in the SPL of the first BPF. The sound pressure level showed less than a 2 dB change with doubling of strut wake turbulence intensity or velocity defect. A discussion of the relative importance of various sources of noise due to flow non-uniformities at the inlet is given.     

Determination of equivalent sound speed profiles for ray tracing in near-ground sound propagation

The determination of appropriate sound speed profiles in the modeling of near-ground propagation using a ray tracing method is investigated using a ray tracing model which is capable of performing axisymmetric calculations of the sound field around an isolated source. Eigenrays are traced using an iterative procedure which integrates the trajectory equations for each ray launched from the source at a specific direction. The calculation of sound energy losses is made by introducing appropriate coefficients to the equations representing the effect of ground and atmospheric absorption and the interaction with the atmospheric turbulence. The model is validated against analytical and numerical predictions of other methodologies for simple cases, as well as against measurements for nonrefractive atmospheric environments. A systematic investigation for near-ground propagation in downward and upward refractive atmosphere is made using experimental data. Guidelines for the suitable simulation of the wind velocity profile are derived by correlating predictions with measurements.     

Low-frequency wind noise correlation in microphone arrays

A three-axis orthogonal microphone array with ten sensors in each arm has been used to study wind noise in the frequency range from 0.05 to 50 Hz. Simultaneous measurements were made of the three components of the varying wind velocity. Measurements have been made for wind speeds from 4 to 7 m/s at three different sites. The frequency-dependent correlation of the wind noise over a range of wind velocities and atmospheric and environmental conditions in the downwind direction varies as exp(-3.2X)cos(27piX). For the crosswind and vertical directions, the correlation decays approximately as exp(-7Y), where X is the separation in wavelengths in the downwind direction and Y is this separation in the crosswind or vertical direction. Over a limited range of wave numbers, the power density spectra of the varying wind velocity varied as the wave number to the -(5/3) power and the pressure spectra as the -(7/3) power.     

Temporal dynamics of longitudinal and transverse velocity structure functions retrieved from the data of acoustic sounding

Temporal dynamics of vertical profiles of the longitudinal and transverse velocity structure functions and characteristics retrieved using an original procedure from regular measurements of vertical profiles of the wind velocity vector with a minisodar operating at a frequency of 4900 Hz is discussed. It is established that the structure functions first increase with the separation of the observation points and then are saturated; moreover, in agreement with the data available from the literature, the longitudinal velocity structure function is much greater than the transverse one. The altitude behavior of the velocity structure characteristic is well described by a z ^−2/3 dependence predicted theoretically. In this case, the structure function calculated from one-point measurements of the vertical wind velocity component exceeds the corresponding structure function retrieved for the vertical separation of the observation points. This is also in agreement with generalizations from the theory of isotropic turbulence.     

尖楔模型结构对脉动压力测量影响实验研究

高超声速边界层转捩与湍流研究是当前空气动力学研究的一个热门领域,脉动压力测量技术在高超声速风洞背景噪声测量和边界层内扰动波发展研究实验中得到了广泛应用.脉动压力传感器由于灵敏度高、测量频率范围宽,其测量结果受多方面因素影响.文章以尖楔模型为研究对象,在常规高超声速风洞中开展了模型背面凸起对表面脉动压力测量结果影响的实验...     

Measured wavenumber: frequency spectrum associated with acoustic and aerodynamic wall pressure fluctuations

Direct measurements of the wavenumber-frequency spectrum of wall pressure fluctuations beneath a turbulent plane channel flow have been performed in an anechoic wind tunnel. A rotative array has been designed that allows the measurement of a complete map, 63×63 measuring points, of cross-power spectral densities over a large area. An original post-processing has been developed to separate the acoustic and the aerodynamic exciting loadings by transforming space-frequency data into wavenumber-frequency spectra. The acoustic part has also been estimated from a simple Corcos-like model including the contribution of a diffuse sound field. The measured acoustic contribution to the surface pressure fluctuations is 5% of the measured aerodynamic surface pressure fluctuations for a velocity and boundary layer thickness relevant for automotive interior noise applications. This shows that for aerodynamically induced car interior noise, both contributions to the surface pressure fluctuations on car windows have to be taken into account.     

梯度倾斜相关测量水平C_n~2和横向风速廓线的理论与仿真研究

根据Rytov近似以及泰勒湍流冻结假设,推导出以不同距离的前向散射光为信标的水平路径上梯度倾斜角的相关表达式.基于该表达式,在理论上提出了计算湍流强度与横向风速的新方法,并通过数值仿真对该方法进行了初步验证.结果表明,在5%高斯误差情况下,大气折射结构常数和风速的计算结果与理论真值在整体变化上具有较好的一致性,线性相关系数分别能达到0.8与0.9.该方法能够得到不同湍流与风速条件下的湍流强度廓线以及风速廓线,为反演大气湍流强度以及风速提供了一种新思路.     

金属烧结丝网在内场消声中的应用

利用试验手段研究暂冲式风洞稳定段内安装不同规格烧结金属丝网对风洞上游控制阀后气流噪声和湍流度抑制作用。试验结果表明:多层金属烧结丝网可在全频段内大幅度降低上游气流的噪声,最大可达21 dB;消声量与金属烧结丝网无量纲的压力损失系数成正比,压力降与金属烧结丝网层数呈现出非线性叠加的结果。另外发现烧结金属烧结丝网对气流速度脉动亦具有突出的抑制效果。例如,试验段马赫数Ma=1.5时,120目26层+160目26层组合烧结金属丝网出口气流速压脉动幅值减小为入口来流的18%,湍流度由11.7%降至3%。因此金属烧结丝网适合于暂冲式风洞的内场降噪。     

Quantitative measurement of pass-by noise radiated by vehicles running at high speeds

It has been a challenge in the past to accurately locate and quantify the pass-by noise source radiated by the running vehicles. A system composed of a microphone array is developed in our current work to do this work. An acoustic-holography method for moving sound sources is designed to handle the Doppler effect effectively in the time domain. The effective sound pressure distribution is reconstructed on the surface of a running vehicle. The method has achieved a high calculation efficiency and is able to quantitatively measure the sound pressure at the sound source and identify the location of the main sound source. The method is also validated by the simulation experiments and the measurement tests with known moving speakers. Finally, the engine noise, tire noise, exhaust noise and wind noise of the vehicle running at different speeds are successfully identified by this method.     

Comparative Study of the Propagation of Jet Noise in Static and Flow Environments

In order to analyze the effect of the background flow on the sound prediction of fine-scale turbulence noise, the sound spectra from static and flow environments are compared. It turns out that, the two methods can obtain similar predictions not only at 90 deg to the jet axis but also at mid- and high frequencies in other directions. The discrepancies of predictions from the two environments show that the effect of the jet flow on the sound propagation is related to low frequencies in the downstream and upstream directions. It is noted that there is an obvious advantage of computational efficiency for calculating in static environment, compared with that in flow environment. A good agreement is also observed to some extent between the predictions in static environment and measurements of subsonic to supersonic. It is believed that the predictions in static environment could be an effective method to study the propagation of the sound in jet flow and to predict the fine scale turbulence noise accurately in a way as well.     

On MRI turbulence quantification

Turbulent flow, characterized by velocity fluctuations, accompanies many forms of cardiovascular disease and may contribute to their progression and hemodynamic consequences. Several studies have investigated the effects of turbulence on the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal. Quantitative MRI turbulence measurements have recently been shown to have great potential for application both in human cardiovascular flow and in engineering flow. In this article, potential pitfalls and sources of error in MRI turbulence measurements are theoretically and numerically investigated. Data acquisition strategies suitable for turbulence quantification are outlined. The results show that the sensitivity of MRI turbulence measurements to intravoxel mean velocity variations is negligible, but that noise may degrade the estimates if the turbulence encoding parameter is set improperly. Different approaches for utilizing a given amount of scan time were shown to influence the dynamic range and the uncertainty in the turbulence estimates due to noise. The findings reported in this work may be valuable for both in vitro and in vivo studies employing MRI methods for turbulence quantification.