Calibration of CR-39 with atomic force microscope for the measurement of short range tracks from proton-induced target fragmentation reactions

We studied the track response of CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors (PNTD) for low (<6 MeV/n) and high (>100 MeV/n) energy heavy ions using the atomic force microscope (AFM). CR-39 PNTD was exposed to several heavy ion beams of different energy at HIMAC (Heavy Ion Medical Accelerator in Chiba). For AFM measurement, the amount of bulk etch was controlled to be ∼2 μm in order to avoid etching away of short range tracks. The response data obtained by AFM for ∼2 μm bulk etch was in good agreement with data obtained by the conventional optical microscope analysis for larger bulk etch. The response data from low energy beams (stopping near the surface) was also consistent with the data from high energy beams (penetrating the detector) as a function of REL (restricted energy loss) with the δ-ray cut off energy of ω₀ = 200 eV. We experimentally verified that REL (ω₀ = 200 eV) gives a universal function for wide energy range in CR-39 PNTD. This work has been done as part of a basic study in the measurement of secondary short range tracks produced by target fragmentation reactions in proton cancer therapy fields.     

Dosimetry and microdosimetry of 10–220 MeV proton beams with CR-39 and their verifications by calculation of reaction cross sections using ALICE,TALYS and GEANT4 codes

High- and intermediate-energy protons are not able to directly form a track in a CR-39 etch detector (TED). Such detectors, however, can be used for the detection and dosimetry of the beams of these particles through the registration of secondary charged particles with sufficiently high values of linear energy transfer (LET). High-energy protons (72–220 MeV) and Intermediate-energy protons (10–30 MeV) with low LET values ranging from 1.1 down to 0.4 keV/μm and 5.87 down to 2.40 keV/μm, respectively are considered in this study. It seems to be sufficient to create secondary particles, although the LET values are low. This phenomenon can modify the characteristics of the energy transfer process due to these particles, which should be taken into account when such particles are used for radiobiology studies or for radiotherapy. The importance of these secondary particles was investigated experimentally by means of an LET spectrometer based on a chemically etched track detector in which the tracks of the primary protons are not revealed. Experiments were performed with proton beams available at the Nuclear Research Center for Agriculture and Medicine (NRCAM) in Karaj, Iran and at the National Cancer Center (NCC) in Seoul, Korea with protons of primary energies of about 10–30 MeV and 72–220 MeV respectively. The contribution of the secondary particle dose increases as the proton energy decreases. The origin of the secondary particles in interactions with protons having high and intermediate energies due to various nuclear reactions was calculated by the both ALICE and TALYS computer codes. The secondary microdosimetry doses were also calculated by GEANT4 code. There is large discrepancy between experimental and calculated results in low proton energies. It has been verified that there is a good correlation between the experimentally obtained results and the reaction cross sections predicted by ALICE and TALYS codes.     

Measurement of the track etch rates along proton and alpha particle trajectories in CR-39 and calculation of the detection efficiency

Computation of the neutron response of CR-39 detectors needs to simulate the track formation by neutron induced charged particles taking into account the bulk etch rate and the track etch rate varying along the particle trajectories. The latter one was determined experimentally by track length measurement. The results allowed to derive the relationship between the track etch rate and the restricted energy loss of the charged particles. On this basis, the geometrical track parameters and track etch rates as well as the critical angle of particle incidence could be determined for protons and alpha particles in the energy range from 0.2 to 8.8 MeV. The energy dependence of the critical angle enabled to determine the detection efficiency for a charged particle of given energy and direction.     

The experimental and simulated LET spectrum and charge spectrum from CR-39 detectors exposed to irons near CRaTER at BNL

Human will be sooner or later return to the moon and will eventually travel to the planets near Earth. Space radiation hazards are an important concern for human space flight in deep space where galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles are dominated and radiation is much stronger than that in LEO (Low Earth Orbit) because in deep space there is no magnetosphere to screen charged particle and no big planet nearby to shadow the spacecraft.Research indicates that the impact of particle radiation on humans depends strongly on the particles' linear energy transfer (LET) and the radiation risk is dominated by high LET radiation. Therefore, radiation research on high LET should be emphasized and conducted systematically so as to make radiation risk as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) for astronauts.Radiation around the moon can be measured with silicon detectors and/or CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors (PNTDs). At present stage the silicon detectors are one of the preferred active dosimeters which are sensitive to all LET and CR-39 detectors are the preferred passive dosimeters which are sensitive to high LET (≥5 keV/μm water). CR-39 PNTDs can be used as personal dosimeters for astronauts. Both the LET spectrum and the charge spectrum for charged particles in space can be measured with silicon detectors and CR-39 detectors.Calibrations for a detector system combined with the silicon detectors CRaTER (Cosmic Rays Telescope for the Effects of Radiation) from Boston University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the CR-39 PNTDs from JSC (Johnson Space Center) – SRAG (Space Radiation Analysis Group) were conducted by exposing the detector system to the accelerator generated protons and heavy ions. US space mission for the radiation measurement around the moon using CRaTER was carried out in 2009.Results obtained from the calibration exposures indicate an excellent agreement between LET spectrum and charge spectrum measured with CR-39 detectors and simulated with PHITS (Particle and Heavy Ion Transport System).This paper introduces the LET spectrum method and charge spectrum method using CR-39 PNTDs and the Monte Carlo simulation method for CR-39 detectors, presents and compares the results measured with CR-39 PNTDs and simulated for CR-39 detectors exposed to heavy irons (600 MeV/n) in BNL (Brookhaven National Laboratory) in front and behind the CRaTER.     

Thermal annealing of proton tracks with energies of 4 and 6 MeV in CR-39 polymer detectors

In this paper, we study the thermal annealing of proton tracks of 4 and 6 MeV at temperatures ranging from 150 to 240°C in CR-39 polymer detectors. A special experimental set-up for irradiating the detectors was arranged to obtain adequate proton beams from the Cyclotron CV-28 at IPEN/SP, Brazil. We report experimental data on track densities, track diameters, and activation energies based on current annealing models for the annealing of proton tracks in the energy range investigated. A value of (0.20±0.02)eV was determined as the mean activation energy of the annealing process in CR-39 detectors.     

Dosimetry of 40 and 70 MeV/n O beams

Using CR-39 plastic track detectors the range values of ¹⁶O ions at two different energies (initially in the beam line, 39.97 MeV/n and 69.98 MeV/n) were measured after escaping the beam pipe and found to be (3050 ± 40) μm and (8210 ± 90) μm, respectively. The longitudinal and projected angular spread of oxygen ions of an initial energy of 69.98 MeV/n in the region of the Bragg peak was derived from the measured geometrical parameters of tracks. Based on a calibration curve (etch rate ratio vs total linear energy transfer in CR-39) and the measured track length distribution at the range end of oxygen ions, the complete depth dose profile of a 67.7 MeV/n ¹⁶O beam in CR-39 (plateau, extended Bragg peak and residual ionization caused by projectile like fragments) was obtained.     

Measurement of target fragments produced by 160 MeV proton beam in aluminum and polyethylene with CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors

Production of target fragments from reactions of 160 MeV proton beams in aluminum and polyethylene was measured with CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors (PNTD). Due to the detection limit of PNTD, primary protons cannot be detected; only low-energy short-range target fragments are registered. As a feasibility study, a so called “two step etching method” was employed to get the linear energy transfer (LET) spectra, absorbed dose, and dose equivalent. This method is discussed in this paper, together with the measured results.     

Efficient alpha particle detection by CR-39 applying 50 Hz-HV electrochemical etching method

Alpha particles can be detected by CR-39 by applying either chemical etching (CE), electrochemical etching (ECE), or combined pre-etching and ECE usually through a multi-step HF-HV ECE process at temperatures much higher than room temperature. By applying pre-etching, characteristics responses of fast-neutron-induced recoil tracks in CR-39 by HF-HV ECE versus KOH normality (N) have shown two high-sensitivity peaks around 5–6 and 15–16 N and a large-diameter peak with a minimum sensitivity around 10–11 N at 25°C. On the other hand, 50 Hz-HV ECE method recently advanced in our laboratory detects alpha particles with high efficiency and broad registration energy range with small ECE tracks in polycarbonate (PC) detectors. By taking advantage of the CR-39 sensitivity to alpha particles, efficacy of 50 Hz-HV ECE method and CR-39 exotic responses under different KOH normalities, detection characteristics of 0.8 MeV alpha particle tracks were studied in 500 μm CR-39 for different fluences, ECE duration and KOH normality. Alpha registration efficiency increased as ECE duration increased to 90 ± 2% after 6–8 h beyond which plateaus are reached. Alpha track density versus fluence is linear up to 10⁶ tracks cm⁻². The efficiency and mean track diameter versus alpha fluence up to 10⁶ alphas cm⁻² decrease as the fluence increases. Background track density and minimum detection limit are linear functions of ECE duration and increase as normality increases. The CR-39 processed for the first time in this study by 50 Hz-HV ECE method proved to provide a simple, efficient and practical alpha detection method at room temperature.     

Proton response of high sensitivity CR-39 copolymer

We studied the track response for the copolymer of CR-39 monomer with N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) as well as etching properties. It was found that copoly (CR-39/NIPAAm/Naugard 445) composed in wieght ratio of 99/1/0.01 is highly sensitive to low LET particles in the region below 10 keV/μm of LET and able to record normally incident particles of LET down to 1.5 keV/μm, recording protons up to the energy of 27 MeV. These results were compared with the responses for two types of CR-39 detectors containing a small quantity of antioxidant. The threshold energy proton registration is discussed.     

Coded aperture imaging of alpha source spatial distribution

The Coded Aperture Imaging (CAI) technique has been applied with CR-39 nuclear track detectors to image alpha particle source spatial distributions. The experimental setup comprised: a ²²⁶Ra source of alpha particles, a laser-machined CAI mask, and CR-39 detectors, arranged inside a vacuum enclosure. Three different alpha particle source shapes were synthesized by using a linear translator to move the ²²⁶Ra source within the vacuum enclosure. The coded mask pattern used is based on a Singer Cyclic Difference Set, with 400 pixels and 57 open square holes (representing ρ = 1/7 = 14.3% open fraction). After etching of the CR-39 detectors, the area, circularity, mean optical density and positions of all candidate tracks were measured by an automated scanning system. Appropriate criteria were used to select alpha particle tracks, and a decoding algorithm applied to the (x, y) data produced the de-coded image of the source. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) values obtained for alpha particle CAI images were found to be substantially better than those for corresponding pinhole images, although the CAI-SNR values were below the predictions of theoretical formulae. Monte Carlo simulations of CAI and pinhole imaging were performed in order to validate the theoretical SNR formulae and also our CAI decoding algorithm. There was found to be good agreement between the theoretical formulae and SNR values obtained from simulations. Possible reasons for the lower SNR obtained for the experimental CAI study are discussed.     

Track etch rates along the trajectories of nitrogen and oxygen ions in CR-39

Experimental studies on track etch rates in CR-39 performed with protons, deuterons and alpha particles as well as ⁷Li, ¹¹B and ¹²C ions were extended to ¹⁴N and ¹⁶O ions. The results are compatible with the general systematics found for the dependence on the kind of ion and its initial energy. Analysing the etch rate ratios as function of the restricted energy loss (REL), the non-existence of a unique relationship has been confirmed. However, assuming a dependence of the etch rate ratio not only on REL, but also on the depth within the detector where a given REL value occurs, all experimental data could be adjusted. The experiments with ¹⁴N and ¹⁶O ions allow extension of the REL range studied up to about 14 000 MeV/cm. The whole area relevant to neutron-induced charged particles generated within the CR-39 detectors is covered thereby. Having added the data for ¹⁴N and ¹⁶O ions, the array of curves for the etch rate ratio could be expanded up to 14 000 MeV/cm without inconsistencies, demonstrating the compatibility of the new data set also quantitatively.     

Relative thermoluminescent efficiency of LiF detectors for proton radiation: Batch variability and energy dependence

The available experimental data on the relative thermoluminescent efficiency of the LiF:Mg,Ti dosimetric peaks for protons are contradictory. There are several reports showing that the efficiency exceeds unity by even more than 30%, however, many others show the efficiency close to unity or even lower. These contradictory data might be a result of the real variability of TLD properties or of not perfectly reproduced experimental conditions.In an attempt to resolve this issue, the efficiency of 16 batches of LiF:Mg,Ti (MTS) detectors for 60 MeV protons produced at the IFJ Kraków over the last 20 years was measured. All values of the relative TL efficiency were found to exceed unity significantly, with an average of 1.09. Dispersion between different batches was very low, all data were within 4% of the mean value.In second part of experiment the dependence of the relative efficiency of LiF:Mg,Ti and LiF:Mg,Cu,P detectors on proton energy was determined. The efficiency for LiF:Mg,Ti dosimetric peaks was found to have a maximum of 1.20 at about 20 MeV. For LiF:Mg,Cu,P the relative efficiency decreases systematically with decreasing proton energy, from 0.96 at 56 MeV, to 0.61 at 11 MeV.     

Post-irradiation sensitization of CR-39 track detector in carbon dioxide atmosphere

The effect of post-irradiation treatment of CR-39 track detector in carbon dioxide atmosphere on the alpha particle registration sensitivity was investigated. Significant increase in etch rate ratio for 6.1 MeV ²⁵²Cf alpha particle was observed. The sensitization increasedboth as a function of trating time and as a function of carbon dioxide pressure in the treating vessel. Energy dependence of the sensitization was found to be small in the 2–9 MeV alpha particle energy interval. Fading of latent tracks after the sensitization process was slow in a one day period. Pre-irradiation treatment in carbon dioxide showed also some sensitization, though to a lesser extent than post-irradiation treatment. However, exposing CR-39 alpha particles in pure carbon dioxide atmosphere resulted in dramatic decrease in sensitivity. The role of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in the primary latent track formation and in post-irradiation latent track transformation is discussed. Potential influence of the application of sensitization of CR-39 in radon, neutron and cosmic ray charged particle dosimetry is also discussed.     

The determination of the neutron component of cosmic radiation fields in spacecraft

Poly allyl diglycol carbonate (PADC or CR-39^®) etched track detectors may be used to estimate the neutron component of the cosmic radiation in spacecraft using simple techniques developed for neutron personal dosimetry. Electrochemically etched pits are identified and counted using fully automated read-out procedures. The neutron component of the radiation field at the location of the dosimeter will produce electrochemically etchable tracks, as will the proton and energetic heavy charged particle components, depending on particle type, energy and angle of incidence. The response to incident charged particles which produce tracks and are counted as if produced by a neutron, will lead to an over-estimate of the neutron component. A correction can be applied to take account of this, or an additional chemical etch carried out which allows discrimination. Recent results for exposures in low-Earth orbit are reported.     

Alpha Particle Response of CR-39 Polycarbonated Detector

The alpha particle response which is characteristic of polycarbonate detectors CR-39 has been investigated. The track diameter as a function of alpha energy in the range from 5.1–22.2 MeV was examined. The mean track diameter or size of the tracks are found to be energy dependent which decreases as alpha energy increases with a trend at about 14 MeV alpha energy. With regard to the spectroscopy of alpha from track radii, it was stated that the discrimination of lower alpha energies shows better results than the high energies for the present etching condition.

Es wurde die charakteristische Wirkung von Alpha-Teilchen auf die Polycarbonatdetektoren CR-39 untersucht. Der Spurendurchmesser als Funktion der Alpha-Energie wurde im Energiebereich 5,1… 22,2 MeV verfolgt. Der mittlere Spurendurchmesser oder die Spurengroβe waren energieabhängig und nahmen mit zunehmender Alpha-Energie bei einem Trend von ungefähr 14 Me V ab. In being auf die Spektroskopie von Alpha-Teilchen von den Spurenradien wurde festgestellt, daβeine Unterscheidung von niederen Alpha-Energien bessere Ergebnisse brachte als solche bei hohen Energien für die vorliegende Ätzbedingung.     

Intercomparative study of the detection characteristics of the CR-39 SSNTD for light ions: Present status of the besancon-dresden approaches

For the last few years, the Besançon and Dresden teams have been working in a parallel way on light ion (protons and alphas) registration characteristics for the CR-39 SSNTD. Even if the two groups use different approaches, the main part of both investigations concerns the study of the track etch rate (V_T) and the consequences of the obtained results, which have provided us with greater understanding of detection limits.

After recalling the methods used to determine the V_T from both teams, will show how fundamental datal related to the registration properties of the CR-39 detector can be extracted. Indeed, the knowledge of an analytical relation for the V_T enables the relationship between this velocity and the primary deposited energy to the examined with respect to the same spatial variable (the instantaneous depth of penetration (x) of the incoming particle). According to experimental uncertainties, the Bragg peak of the primary ionization coincides within a very close range with the maximum of the V_T. Moreover, if increasing the etching parameters (C, T) increases the maximum V_T value, these changes do not affect its position with respect to the instantaneous depth of penetration.

Taking into account the reduced etch rate, the Dresden team found that both protons and alphas exhibit the same behavior when this rate is plotted versus the primary energy deposition rate. As a consequence, the corresponding reduced etch rate is always identical no matter what type of particle deposits a given amount of energy (e.g. proton or alpha). The Besançon team has corroborated the results obtained by the Dresden group for alphas and have extended the study to various etching conditions. From these results, the sensitivity of the CR-39 SSNTD is obtained in terms of critical LET and leads to a very low energy threshold for alpha particles. We will see throughout this paper that the lower threshold does not seem to depend on the etching parameters.     

High Energy Charged Particle Registration in CR-39 Polycarbonated Detector

Track etch rate characteristics of CR-39 plastic detector exposed to ²⁸Si ions of 670 MeV energy have been investigated. Experimental results were obtained in terms of frequency distribution of the track diameter, track density and bulk etching rate. A dependence of the mean track diameter on energy was found. The application of the radiation effect of heavy ions on CR-39 in the field of radiation detection and dosimetry are discussed. Results indicated that it is possible to produce etchable tracks of ²⁸Si in this energy range in CR-39. We also report the etching characteristics of these tracks in the CR-39 detector.     

Photoparticle production in solid state detectors used for neutron dosimetry in the presence of photons

Photon-induced neutron, proton and alpha particle production in polyethylene and CR-39 has been estimated for the photon energy range of 2–30 MeV, using our previously established methods and photonuclear cross-section data for hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. The rarer isotopes of the constituents of CR-39 and polyethylene, namely ²H, ¹³C, ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O, have been taken into account. Neutrons and protons are produced in polyethylene and CR-39 for photon energies above 2.2 MeV, the (γ, np) threshold for ²H. Photoparticles produced in these materials may need to be taken into consideration when using them for neutron dosimetry in the presence of photons in this energy range, especially when the neutron flux is several orders of magnitude less than that of the photons.     

一种用于DT聚变诊断的新型中子谱仪的设计

介绍了一种基于反冲质子法和磁分析技术的新型DT聚变中子谱仪, 能够以高信噪比对9—17MeV的中子能谱进行精确测量, 适用于稳态及脉冲条件下的等离子体温度（T_i）和燃料面密度（<ρR）的诊断, 对14 MeV的初级DT中子具有约4%的能量分辨率和约10-8的探测效率。谱仪的磁分析系统使用高性能钕铁硼二极永磁铁建造, 焦平面上使用CR-39固体径迹探测器测量反冲质子的位置分布。使用239Pu α源对磁分析系统进行了实验研究,并建立了配套的粒子输运模拟程序。 结合实验和程序模拟结果,使用蒙特卡罗软件模拟分析了谱仪整体性能。 谱仪结构紧凑、性能良好且适用于稳态及脉冲辐射场,可望在未来的聚变研究中得到有效应用。 Design of a novel spectrometer for measurements of neutrons in the energy range 9—17 MeV has been proposed. Based on proton recoil method and magnetic analyzing technigue, the spectrometer can be used to determine DT fuel areal density(<ρR) and ion temperature under steady state and pulsed radiation field. The detection efficiency is about 10-8 for measuring 14 MeV neutrons with an energy resolution of about 4%. A neodymium iron boron permanent dipole was used for the magnetic analyzing system and CR-39 track detectors were used in the focal plane. The system has been tested with 239Pu α suorce and a corresponding particle transport simulation program has been worked out. Performance of the spectrometer was investigated with Monte Carlo simulation, experiment data and the transport simulation. Due to its good performance, compact structure,and availability for both steady state and pulsed radiation field, the spectrometer can be effectively used for fusion research in the future.     

Neutron,photon and proton energy spectra at high altitude measured using a phoswich-type neutron detector

Neutron energy spectrum from 7 to 180 MeV, photon energy spectrum from 4 to 50 MeV and proton energy spectrum from 94 to 145 MeV were measured simultaneously using a phoswich-type neutron detector with particle discrimination methods at atmospheric depth of 249 g/cm², a vertical cut-off rigidity of 10.2 GV and at a heliocentric potential of 312 MV. We compared our results with other measured and calculated particle energy spectra. Our measured results give a large, sharp neutron peak around 70 MeV, although Bonner balls show a broad peak around 100 MeV due to low energy resolution. The measured photon and proton spectra are between the calculated energy spectra. This onboard study provides the first experimental neutron energy spectrum over 10 MeV with a high-energy resolution.