Investigation of gettering effects in CZ-type silicon with SIMS

Ion implantation is a well-known standard procedure in electronic device technology for precise and controlled introduction of dopants into silicon. However, damage caused by implantation acts as effective gettering zones, collecting unwanted metal impurities. This effect can be applied for proximity gettering reducing the concentration of impurities in the active device region. In this study the consequences of high-energy ion implantation into silicon and of subsequent annealing were analysed by means of secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). Depth profiles were recorded of such impurities as copper, oxygen and carbon to obtain information about their gettering behaviour. The differences in impurities gettering behaviour were studied as a function of the implanted ions, P and Si, of the implantation dose and annealing time at T=900°C. Besides impurities gettering at the mean projected range (Rp) of implanted ions, Rp-effect, defects at around half of the projected ion range, Rp/2-effect, and even in some cases beyond Rp, trans-Rp-effect, have also been found to be effective in gettering of material impurities.     

Study of the phosphorus embrittlement in heavy metal alloys by a combination of SIMS and TEM

Summary The embrittlement of heavy metals of the type W96FeNi4 at phosphorus concentrations above 100 g/g is a phenomenon of considerable scientific and technical interest. In order to obtain information on the cause of embrittlement the behaviour of phosphorus as a function of technological parameters, particularly the cooling rate after sintering, has to be investigated. By application of SIMS and TEM it could be shown that phosphorus segregates to the grain boundary tungsten-binder during cooling, and that segregation increases with decreasing cooling rate. By quantitative micro trace analysis with SIMS the solubility limit of P in W could be determined. TEM showed that microprecipitates of a typical diameter of 5 nm are formed in the binder phase during cooling. Larger precipitates in the range 100–1000 nm occur at the grain boundaries tungsten-binder. By electron diffraction with computerized evaluation of the patterns these precipitates could be identified as NiP₂ phases. A major methodological result is that the combination of SIMS and TEM exhibits a great potential for the study of the influence of trace elements on material properties.

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Untersuchung der Phosphor-Versprödung von Schwermetallen mittels SIMS and TEM

Zusammenfassung Die Versprödung von Schwermetallen des Typs W96FeNi4 bei Phosphorkonzentrationen von größer als 100 g/g ist von beträchtlichem technischen und wissenschaftlichen Interesse. Um die Ursache für die Versprödung aufzuklären, müssen Informationen über das Verhalten von Phosphor als Funktion technologischer Parameter, insbesondere der Abkühlgeschwindigkeit nach dem Sintern gewonnen werden. Durch kombinierten Einsatz von SIMS und TEM konnte gezeigt werden, daß Phosphor bei der Abkühlung an die Korngrenze Wolfram — Binderphase segregiert und daß die Segregation mit langsamerer Abkühlgeschwindigkeit zunimmt. Weiterhin konnte die Löslichkeit von Phosphor in den Wolframphasen durch quantitative Mikrobereichsanalyse mit SIMS bestimmt werden. Mittels TEM wurde festgestellt, daß beim Abkühlen Mikropräcipitate mit einem typischen Durchmesser von 5 nm gebildet werden. Größere Präcipitate von ca. 100–1000 nm Durchmesser finden sich an den Korngrenzen. Mittels Elektronenbeugung und Computerauswertung der Beugungsmuster können diese Präcipitate als NiP₂ identifiziert werden. Ein weiteres methodisch orientiertes Ergebnis dieser Untersuchungen ist, daß die Kombination SIMS und TEM ein großes Potential für die Untersuchung des Einflusses von Spurenelementen auf Werkstoffeigenschaften aufweist.

     

Characterization of oxygen precipitates in Czochralski silicon by imaging SIMS

This paper presents a three-dimensional characterization of oxygen defects in Czochralski-silicon (CZ) by 3D-SIMS using a camera based imaging system. Different manufacturing processes yielding a variation in size and distribution of oxygen precipitates are monitored by imaging SIMS and conventional depth profiling. Emphasis is laid on the characterization of the precipitation behavior governed by different annealing processes. The limitations of 3D SIMS for oxygen defect imaging are studied. Sputter induced microroughening of the crater bottom, investigated by SEM, is shown to be strongly correlated with defect densities caused by oxygen precipitates.     

SIMS Profiling and TEM of CVD Films on Multi-Filament Samples

 A suitable fibre coating is essential to obtain optimal fibre-matrix interaction in fibre-strengthened composite materials. Thin films (∼100 nm) of silicon carbide, turbostratic carbon, and boron nitride were deposited by CVD as single or double layers on commercial multi-filament fibres in a continuous process. The fibre material itself may be carbon, alumina, silicon carbide, or a quaternary ceramic of SiCBN. The application of MCs⁺-SIMS enables one to determine the composition (including impurities of H and O) of various fibre coating materials with an accuracy of at least 20% relative. Due to the special geometry of the multi-filament samples the depth resolution of the SIMS depth profiles is limited, nevertheless, layered structures and some details of the interface between coating and fibre can be studied. The depth calibration of the SIMS depth profiles is derived from sputter rates established on flat samples with a composition similar to that of the fibre coating material. However, the obtained film thicknesses are not extremely different from the values derived from TEM on cross sections of coated fibres.     

AES and SIMS profiling of buried silicide layers formed by 6 MeV high dose nickel implantation into silicon

Summary The composition of deep-buried conductive layers formed by 6 MeV high dose Ni implantation into silicon at 450 K has been studied using AES and SIMS. For a dose of 1.3 × 10¹⁸ Ni/cm², AES analysis yields a Ni to Si ratio close to NiSi₂ stoichiometry at profile maximum, as expected from high dose Monte Carlo simulations. In this region the shape of the Si LVV Auger line indicates the presence of NiSi₂. TEM/XTEM investigations reveal a continuous NiSi₂ layer, showing a high density of extended defects.

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AES- und SIMS-Profilanalyse vergrabener Silicidschichten, die durch 6-MeV-Hochdosis-Nickel-Implantation in Silicium erzeugt wurden

     

Ultrahigh sensitivity SIMS analysis of oxygen in silicon

We report on the detection of very low oxygen concentration in silicon by a secondary‐ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) method. Using a magnetic IMS 6F Cameca SIMS spectrometer and applying a very high primary Cs⁺ ion flux, prolonged presputtering, extensive vacuum chamber baking, titanium sublimation pump, and an LN trap, we have reached a detection limit of ~2 × 10¹⁵ O atoms/cm³ in chemical vapor deposition epitaxial Si films. This value appears to be at least 10 times lower than in any published or unpublished source known to the authors, including the reference sensitivities listed by the instrument manufacturer. Most likely, the key improvement that has allowed us to drive the detection limit to 10¹⁵ at/cm³ is the use of an ion pump in the analysis chamber. The working pressure in our analysis chamber is ~10⁻¹⁰ Thorr, ie, 1 decade lower than that the commercially equipped with a turbo pump. This paper demonstrates optimized analytical conditions for the oxygen measurements in Si, as a function of depth: (i) Very shallow profiles are practically impossible to measure accurately because of native oxide at the surface. (ii) Shallow‐to‐medium range profiles, up to ~20 μm, are the most amenable to SIMS measurements. (iii) Medium‐to‐deep (~20‐50 μm) range is required to follow interdiffusion and segregation in epitaxial layers when the oxygen‐free layer is grown on a CZ Si substrate. (iv) Extremely deep profiles, up to full thickness of the wafer, definitely necessitate beveling.     

Determination of lattice and grain boundary diffusion coefficients in protective alumina scales on high temperature alloys using SEM,TEM and SIMS

Grain and grain boundary diffusion coefficients in alumina scales on FeCrAl-based ODS alloys have been determined. The boundary diffusion-coefficients have been derived by combining gravimetrically determined growth rate data with SEM and TEM analyses of the oxide scale microstructure. The diffusion coefficients determined have been used as input parameters for a computer model describing the oxygen isotope exchange between grain and grain boundary in the alumina scale which forms during a two-stage oxidation using (18)O-tracers. This comparison of the calculated tracer profiles with profiles determined experimentally by SIMS allows the estimation of the lattice diffusion coefficient of oxygen in the alumina scale.     

Distribution analysis of trace elements in low alloy steel by means of EPMA,SIMS, and TEM

A combination of chemical analysis, EPMA, SIMS, and TEM was applied to gain information on the bulk values, the microstructure and the microdistribution of contaminants. The limitations of classical chemical analysis were overcome by the application of highly sophisticated analytical techniques. Optimized measurement conditions were worked out for SIMS analysis and basic data such as relative sensitivity factors were gained for further investigations. A correlation between the microdistribution of contaminants and mechanical data could not be established so far, since only two samples were investigated.List of acronyms used BAS British Association of Standardisation (UK) - CGHE carrier gas hot extraction - DL detection limit - ED energy discrimination - EPMA electron probe micro analysis - E ₀ energy of primary ions - HMR high mass resolution - I _B primary ion beam current - NBS National Bureau of Standards (USA) - OES optical emission spectroscopy - PI primary ions - RSF relative sensitivity factor - SI secondary ions - SIMS secondary ion mass spectrometry - SKF SKF Analytica Taeby (Sweden) - TEM transmission electron microscopy - XRFA X-ray fluorescence analysis - d _A diameter of analyzed area     

Determination of lattice and grain boundary diffusion coefficients in protective alumina scales on high temperature alloys using SEM, TEM and SIMS

Grain and grain boundary diffusion coefficients in alumina scales on FeCrAl-based ODS alloys have been determined. The boundary diffusion-coefficients have been derived by combining gravimetrically determined growth rate data with SEM and TEM analyses of the oxide scale microstructure. The diffusion coefficients determined have been used as input parameters for a computer model describing the oxygen isotope exchange between grain and grain boundary in the alumina scale which forms during a two-stage oxidation using ¹⁸O-tracers. This comparison of the calculated tracer profiles with profiles determined experimentally by SIMS allows the estimation of the lattice diffusion coefficient of oxygen in the alumina scale.     

Reduction of matrix effects in TOF‐SIMS analysis by metal‐assisted SIMS (MetA‐SIMS)

We investigated reduction of the matrix effect in time‐of‐flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF‐SIMS) analysis by the deposition of a small amount of metal on the sample surfaces (metal‐assisted SIMS or MetA‐SIMS). The metal used was silver, and the substrates used were silicon wafers as electroconductive substrates and polypropylene (PP) plates as nonelectroconductive substrates. Irganox 1010 and silicone oil on these substrates were analyzed by TOF‐SIMS before and after silver deposition. Before silver deposition, the secondary ion yields from the substances on the silicon wafer and PP plate were quite different due to the matrix effect from each substrate. After silver deposition, however, both ion yields were enhanced, particularly the sample on the PP plate, and little difference was seen between the two substrates. It was therefore found that the deposition of a small amount of metal on the sample surface is useful for reduction of the matrix effect. By reducing the matrix effect using this technique, it is possible to evaluate from the ion intensities the order of magnitude of the quantities of organic materials on different substrates. In addition, this reduction technique has clear utility for the imaging of organic materials on nonuniform substrates such as metals and polymers. MetA‐SIMS is thus a useful analysis tool for solving problems with real‐world samples. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Determination of boron in silicon by SIMS with the matrix ion species ratio method

Summary In quantitative SIMS, the oxygen content of the sample surface proves to be a very important analytical parameter. The matrix ion species ratio method (MISR) was used to investigate the influence of the presence of oxygen on the determination of boron in silicon. By analysing standard samples at conditions of different oxygen coverage, the relation between the sensitivity of boron and the oxygen content of the sample surface, as indexed by the SiO⁺/Si³⁺ matrix ion species ratio, was established. The influence of the primary ion current density on this relation was investigated. The MISR procedure proves to be a suitable method to perform quantitative determinations (relative error < 10%) in conditions of changing oxygen content on the sample surface.

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Bestimmung von Bor in Silicium durch SIMS mit der Matrix Ion Species Ratio Method

     

Investigation of Fuel Crud by Means of ICP-MS and TEM

Dissolved and suspended solid corrosion products (crud) from structural elements in LWRs are of concern since the incorporation of short-lived nuclides like ⁶⁰Co in such oxide layers is a dominant source of the radiation exposure. To determine the mechanisms of the nuclide incorporation, detailed information on the formation and nature of crud is required, especially regarding the chemical composition, molecular coordination and crystal structure. The paper describes the methodology for the characterization of the chemical composition of crud and of the Pt distribution in crud (relevant if Online NobleChem^TM is applied) by means of ICP-MS and TEM as well as the sample preparation techniques.     

Dynamic range optimization in SIMS analyses of arsenic and antimony dopants in silicon

Summary The application of two sample preparation techniques leads to a better understanding of the profile tailing in SIMS analyses of As and Sb distributions measured with Cs primary ions. The dynamic range in the SIMS depth profiles in terms of the detected concentration range is improved nearly by three orders of magnitude on samples with extremely high surface concentrations compared to measurements without preparation. More than five orders of magnitude are obtained. The application of the preparation techniques to As ion implants in silicon reveals a channeling tail below a concentration level of 5·10¹⁶ at/cm³ which is nearly independent of the implanted ion dose if it exceeds 5·10¹² at/cm².     

Boron implantation in Si: Channeling effects studied by SIMS and simulation

The axial channeling behaviour of boron implants in <100>, <110> and <111> silicon wafers is investigated by SIMS. Large differences of channeling characteristics such as channeled projected range (the projected range of channeled ions or channeling peak) and the fraction of channeled to implanted ions are observed among the three major crystal orientations. Within the critical angle, the channeling behaviour is very sensitive to the incidence beam angle with respect to crystal orientations. SIMS measurements are performed at different positions along several critical directions over a whole wafer. Well channeled profiles with an incidence beam angle to crystal orientations of 0 ° are obtained for each ion implantation energy and orientation. The results are used to test various models of ion implantation by simulation. A 3-parameter model for electronic stopping power of boron in silicon was proposed.     

Interface distribution analysis of P in W-NiFe-alloys with SIMS

Summary Microdistribution analysis with SIMS was applied to investigate the segregation mechanism of P in heavy metal alloys. Since P is present in the W-NiFe-alloy as a trace element, analytical techniques for high lateral resolution distribution analysis with maximum sensitivity were developed. This allows the measurement of the distribution of P across grain boundaries and individual phases with a spatial resolution of 1.4 m down to the low g/g-range. Analysis of samples sintered at 1540° C and cooled at different rates showed that P concentrations up to 100 g/g in 96% W heavy metal remain in solid solution whereas excessive phosphorus is precipitated preferentially at the W-NiFe interfaces, this segregation being the more pronounced the lower the cooling rate. A good correlation of P enrichment at the W-NiFe-interfaces with the mechanical properties of the heavy metals was found [3].

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Grenzflächen-Verteilungsanalyse von P in W-NiFe-Legierungen mit SIMS

Zusammenfassung Die Mikrobereichs-Verteilungsanalyse mit SIMS wurde zur Aufklärung des Segregationsmechanismus von P in Schwermetallen eingesetzt. Da P in W-NiFe-Legierungen nur als Spurenelement auftritt, mußten analytische Techniken für die Verteilungsanalyse mit hohem lateralen Auflösungsvermögen und maximaler Empfindlichkeit entwickelt werden. Durch eine chemische Oberflächenreaktion mit O₂ während des Sputterns konnte eine Verbesserung der Signalintensität um drei Größenordnungen erzielt werden. Dies ermöglichte es, die Verteilung von P entlang der Korngrenzen und verschiedenen Phasen mit einer lateralen Auflösung von 1,4 m bis in den unteren g/g-Bereich zu studieren. Die Analyse von bei 1540° C gesinterten und verschieden abgekühlten Proben erlaubte es zu zeigen, daß P-Konzentrationen bis 100 g/g im 96%-W Schwermetall in fester Lösung verteilt sind, wogegen größere P-Mengen bevorzugt an der Phasengrenze W-NiFe ausgeschieden werden. Diese Segregation ist um so ausgeprägter, je langsamer die Proben abgekühlt werden. Insgesamt wurde eine gute Übereinstimmung zwischen den P-Anreicherungen an der W-NiFe-Korngrenze mit den mechanischen Eigenschaften der Schwermetalle erzielt [3].

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Symbols PI primary ion - E_o excitation energy - i_B beam intensity - d_A diameter of analyzed area - d_B beam diameter     

Modification of the chemical properties of silicon by ion implantation with high doses of Ar and P

The behaviour of Si implanted with high doses of P and Ar (5·10¹⁴ to 10¹⁷ cm⁻²) in HF solutions was investigated using radioactive isotopes. The reaction products were analyzed by ion exchange and electrochemical polarization. An increased dissolution was found and a possible reaction mechanism given.     

SIMS for hydrogen quantification and structural analysis of amorphous silicon germanium compounds

Summary Hydrogen has been analysed quantitatively in a-Si_1–xGe_x:H alloys by SIMS with H variation from 1×10¹⁹ –1.3×10²² atoms/cm³ and x between 0 and 1. To quantify the absolute H concentration, SIMS measurements have been calibrated with nuclear reaction analysis, which exhibits excellent agreement with SIMS data for the total range of H and Ge variance. From abundances of the molecule ions SiH⁺ and GeH⁺ the fractions H bound to Si or Ge can be discerned and are in good accordance with quantification of SiH and GeH stretching modes in IR spectroscopic measurements. Preferential attachment of H to Si compared to Ge by a factor of 3.5 is determined for glow discharge a-SiGe:H samples; during annealing up to 900 K only small changes of this factor are observed.     

Investigation of surface reactions of metals by quantitative distribution analysis with SIMS

Summary Surface reactions like carburization or nitriding are important in metallurgy to improve the properties of the surface. In the reaction of FeAlSi-alloys with CO at temperatures of about 1223 K carburization and oxidation occur. Quantitative distribution analysis of C, O, Al and Si in a layer of a few micrometers within a concentration range from x% to x /g is necessary to study the reaction and to calculate diffusion coefficients. Analysis was performed by combination of bulk analysis (thermal analysis for C, O), in situ microanalysis (EPMA/SEM) and surface analysis (SIMS). The investigations focussed on the capability of SIMS for quantitative distribution analysis of trace elements in surface zones of metals.For SIMS measurements a CAMECA IMS 3f ion probe analyzer was used 1. In the analysis of Al and Si matrix and sputter effects could be minimized by careful optimization of the chemical surface reaction with O₂ (oxygen-leak) during analysis. For quantification with an accuracy of approximately 30% rel. external standards were used. For the determination of O and C Ar⁺-primary ions were used. Quantification of oxygen was only possible by combination with bulk analysis (integration method). Due to selective sputtering crater bottoms were rough. Therefore in these measurements depth could not be determined with stylus techniques. Depth scale was obtained by comparing with measurements of Al and Si.

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Untersuchung von Oberflächenreaktionen von Metallen durch Quantitative Verteilungsanalyse mit SIMS

Zusammenfassung In der Metallurgie werden Oberflächenreaktionen wie Carburierung oder Nitrierung zur Verbesserung der Oberflächeneigenschaften verwendet. Bei der Reaktion von FeAlSi-Legierungen mit CO bei Temperaturen von ca. 1223 K tritt Carburierung und Oxidation auf. Zum Studium der Reaktion und zur Berechnung der Diffusionskoeffizienten ist eine quantitative Verteilungsanalyse von C, O, Al und Si in einer Schicht von einigen Mikrometern und einem Konzentrationsbereich von x% bis x g/g notwendig. Die Untersuchungen wurden mit einer Kombination von Durchschnittsanalyse (thermische Verfahren für C, O), in situ Mikroanalyse (ESMA/REM) und Oberflächenanalyse (SIMS) durchgeführt. Es wurden insbesondere die Möglichkeiten von SIMS für die quantitative Verteilungsanalyse von Spurenelementen in Metalloberflächen untersucht.Die SIMS-Analysen wurden mit einer CAMECA IMS 3f-Ionensonde durchgeführt 1. Bei der Analyse von Al und Si konnten Matrix und Sputtereffekte durch sorgfältige Optimierung der chemischen Oberflächenreaktion mit O₂ (oxygen-leak) während der Analyse minimiert werden. Die Quantifizierung erfolgte mit einer Richtigkeit von ca. 30% rel. unter Verwendung von externen Standards.Für die Bestimmung von O und C wurde mit Ar⁺-Primärionen gesputtert. Die Quantifizierung für Sauerstoff war nur durch Kombination mit der Durchschnittsanalyse (Integrationsmethode) möglich. Die Tiefenskala konnte bei diesen Messungen nicht direkt mit Oberflächenprofilometrie Methoden bestimmt werden, da der Kraterboden durch selektives Sputtern sehr rauh war. Die Tiefe wurde daher durch Normierung auf die Al und Si-Messungen bestimmt.

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Symbols used for Analytical Conditions PI primary ions - i _P primary ions current - d _Z crater depth - d _A diameter of analyzed area - PO₂ pressure in sample chamber if oxygen leak was used     

Investigation of Quantitative Relationship between Adsorbed Amount of Solute and Solvent Concentration at Relatively High Solute Con－centration by Frontal Analysis in RPLC

In previous paper a new adsorption isotherm which relates the amount of solute absorbed to the solvent concentration is pro-posed and simplified, and it only can be used at lower solute concentration. In this article the scope of the new adsorption isotherm is extended and the expressions with three and four parameters are obtained. The equations with multi-parameters are valid when the adsorbed mounts are larger and show non-linear logarithmic relationships. Tests with a homologue of are-matic alcohols by frontal analysis in reversed phase liquid chro-matography demonstrate that the experimental results fit those equations well. In addition, the predicted values by the multi-parameters were found to fit the experimental values well also. The parameters have physical meaning only for the two-param-eter equation for the aromatic alcohols.     

Investigation of the silicon concentration effect on Si-doped anatase TiO2 by first-principles calculation

A first-principles calculation based on the density functional theory (DFT) was used to investigate the energetic and electronic properties of Si-doped anatase TiO₂ with various silicon concentrations. The theoretical calculations showed that with Si-doping the valence band and conduction band of TiO₂ became hybrid ones with large dispersion, which could benefit the mobility of the photo-generated carriers. This result is in agreement with the experimental reports. At lower doping levels, the band gap of Si-doped anatase TiO₂ decreases about 0.2 eV. With the increase of silicon concentration, the band gap increases gradually and larger formation energies are required during the synthesis of Si-doped TiO₂.