Passive dosimetry aboard the Mir Orbital Station: external measurements

This paper reports results from the first measurements made on the exterior of a LEO spacecraft of mean dose equivalent rate and average quality factor as functions of shielding depth for shielding less than 1 g/cm2 Al equivalent. Two sets of measurements were made on the outside of the Mir Orbital Station; one near solar maximum in June 1991 and one near solar minimum in 1997. Absorbed dose was measured using stacks of TLDs. LET spectrum from charged particles of LET infinity H2O > o r= 5keV/micrometers was measured using stacks of CR-39 PNTDs. Results from the TLD and PNTD measurements at a given shielding depth were combined to yield mean total dose rate, mean dose equivalent rate, and average quality factor. Measurements made near solar maximum tend to be greater than those made during solar minimum. Both mean dose rate and mean dose equivalent rate decrease by nearly four orders of magnitude within the first g/cm2 shielding illustrating the attenuation of both trapped electrons and low-energy trapped protons. In order to overcome problems with detector saturation after standard chemical processing, measurement of LET spectrum in the least shielded CR-39 PNTD layer (0.005 g/cm2 Al) was carried out using an atomic force microscope.     

Passive dosimetry aboard the Mir Orbital Station: internal measurements

Passive radiation dosimeters were exposed aboard the Mir Orbital Station over a substantial portion of the solar cycle in order to measure the change in dose and dose equivalent rates as a function of time. During solar minimum, simultaneous measurements of the radiation environment throughout the habitable volume of the Mir were made using passive dosimeters in order to investigate the effect of localized shielding on dose and dose equivalent. The passive dosimeters consisted of a combination of thermoluminescent detectors to measure absorbed dose and CR-39 PNTDs to measure the linear energy transfer (LET) spectrum from charged particles of LET infinity H2O > or = 5 keV/micrometers. Results from the two detector types were then combined to yield mean total dose rate, mean dose equivalent rate, and average quality factor. Contrary to expectations, both dose and dose equivalent rates measured during May-October 1991 near solar maximum were higher than similar measurements carried out in 1996-1997 during solar minimum. The elevated dose and dose equivalent rates measured in 1991 were probably due to a combination of intense solar activity, including a large solar particle event on 9 June 1991, and the temporary trapped radiation belt created in the slot region by the solar particle event and ensuing magnetic storm of 24 March 1991. During solar minimum, mean dose and dose equivalent rates were found to vary by factors of 1.55 and 1.37, respectively, between different locations through the interior of Mir. More heavily shielded locations tended to yield lower total dose and dose equivalent rates, but higher average quality factor than did more lightly shielding locations. However, other factors such as changes in the immediate shielding environment surrounding a given detector location, changes in the orientation of the Mir relative to its velocity vector, and changes in the altitude of the station also contributed to the variation. Proton and neutron-induced target fragment secondaries, not primary galactic cosmic rays, were found to dominate the LET spectrum above 100 keV/micrometers. This indicates that in low earth orbit, trapped protons in the South Atlantic Anomaly are responsible for the major fraction of the total dose equivalent.     

Radiation dose measurements aboard the Mir using the R-16 instrument

Data from the R-16 radiation dosimeter mounted to the outside of the Mir space station are analyzed to determine the radiation environment and absorbed radiation dose inside Mir during the 22nd solar cycle. The outcome of the analysis demonstrated that data could be collected over a long period, dynamics of the daily mean absorbed doses correlated well with parameters of solar activity, seasonal variations of absorbed doses during the solar cycle were clearly observed, during periods of unfavorable conditions the absorbed dose rate within the living modules can reach up to 30 mrad/min for more than 10 minutes, and overall, the radiation environment inside the space station was low.     

TEPC measurements obtained on the Mir space station

Measurements of the radiation environment inside the Mir space station were performed with a tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) during the Antares mission in 1992, and over a long period following it. Interesting results concerning radiation measurements show (a) the South Atlantic Anomaly crossing, (b) the increase of radiation near the poles, and (c) the effects of solar particle events (the most important one occurring in early November 1992). This data also provides information about the dose and the quality factor of the radiation to which the cosmonauts were exposed during different missions. These data are compared with measurements obtained using a solid state detector.     

Russian measurements of neutron energy spectra on the Mir orbital station

Results of the experiments on neutron energy spectra measurements within broad energy range from 5 x 10(-7) to 2 x 10(2) MeV aboard the Mir orbital station and equivalent neutron dose estimation are presented. Four measurement techniques were used during the experiments. The shape of spectra and their absolute values are in good agreement. According to those experiments, an equivalent neutron dose depends upon effective shielding thickness and spacecraft mass. The neutron dose mentioned is comparable with that of ionizing radiation. Neutron flux levels measured aboard the Mir station have shown that a neutron spectrometer involving broad energy range will be used within the radiation monitoring systems in manned space flights.     

Radiation measurement on the International Space Station

The results of an investigation of radiation environment on board the ISS with apogee/perigee of 420/380 km and inclination 51.6 degrees are presented. For measurement of important characteristics of cosmic rays (particles fluxes, LET spectrum, equivalent doses and heavy ions with Z > or = 2) a nuclear photographic emulsion as a controllable threshold detector was used. The use of this detector permits a registration of the LET spectrum of charged particles within wide range of dE/dx and during the last years it has already been successfully used on board the MIR station, Space Shuttles and "Kosmos" spacecrafts. An integral LET spectrum was measured in the range 0.5-2.2 x 10(3) keV/micrometers and the value of equivalent dose 360 microSv/day was estimated. The flux of biologically dangerous heavy particles with Z > or = 2 was measured (3.85 x 10(3) particles/cm2).     

Radiation measurements onboard aircraft in the South Atlantic region

There has been considerable research on measurements and simulation of the cosmic radiation doses for aircrew. Most of this was made in the northern hemisphere and on routes between Europe, Asia and North America. The current work shows the results of measurements made onboard a military aircraft specifically in the South Atlantic Anomaly Region, comparing some active and passive instruments and the results from computational dose estimation with special concern about possible effects from the anomaly on the radiation doses.     

同步辐射小角散射实验站

小角X射线散射(SAXS)实验站配置有SAXS相机、在线控制及数据获取系统.SAXS相机由位置精度为1μm的狭缝系统、用以监测光强的电离室、在垂直于束流的平面内能作水平和垂直两个方向遥控调节的样品台和可调长度低真空管道等部分组成,真空管道的两端有25μm厚的Kapton膜密封,探测器为闪烁计数器.该装置的角分辨优于0.6mrad.     

Observations of the low Earth orbit radiation environment from Mir

Recent measurements of the high-energy charged particle environment with the Radiation Environment Monitor (REM) aboard the Russian Mir space station are presented. Ionizing dose rates in a silicon detector have been measured with two shieldings. The dose is mainly accumulated in two distinct areas, the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) and the region of closest approach to the magnetic poles. Whereas the radiation in the South Atlantic Anomaly varied little during 1995, large changes of the daily absorbed doses in the polar regions are observed. A comparison of REM doses with the NASA AP-8 and AE-8 radiation models revealed major differences. AP-8 tends to underestimate the average REM doses, whereas AE-8 overestimates REM doses, and rather describes the worst case.     

Radiation dosimetry measurements during U.S. Space Shuttle missions with the RME-III

Time-resolved radiation dosimetry measurements inside the crew compartment have been made during recent Shuttle missions with the U.S. Air Force Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III (RME-III), a portable battery-powered four-channel tissue equivalent proportional counter. Results from the first six missions are presented and discussed. Half of the missions had orbital inclinations of 28.5 degrees with the remainder at inclinations of 57 degrees or greater; altitudes ranged from 300 to 600 km. The determined dose equivalent rates ranged from 70 to 5300 microSv/day. The RME-III measurements are in good agreement with other dosimetry measurements made aboard the vehicles. Measurements indicate that medium- and high-LET particles contribute less than 2% of the particle fluence for all missions, but up to 50% of the dose equivalent, depending on the spacecraft's altitude and orbital inclination. Isocontours of fluence, dose and dose equivalent rate have been developed from measurements made during the STS-28 mission. The drift rate of the South Atlantic Anomaly is estimated to be 0.49 degrees W/yr and 0.12 degrees N/yr. The calculated trapped proton and GCR dose for the STS-28 mission was significantly lower than the measured values.     

RBS and XFA analysis of polyimide films from the Mir space station

The elemental composition of polyimide film contamination was studied by the RBS and XFA methods. The films were exposed to the space environment aboard the Mir orbital space station during the KOMPLAST in-flight experiment. It was shown that the prevalent deposit element was silicon, which agrees with measurements performed on other spacecrafts.     

Orbital restriction on the functional form of the Lagrangian

The fact that a non-relativistic particle describes an orbit imposes a restriction on the functional form of the Lagrangian. For a classical particle subjected to an arbitrary local ‘generalized force,’ the (local) Lagrangian is shown to involve, at highest, first, second and third time-derivatives of the position respectively, in one, two and three dimensions. The generalization in the quantum régime is indicated with the aid of Feynman's path integrals.     

同步辐射微束X射线荧光分析实验站

北京同步辐射装置微束X射线荧光实验站位于4W1A白光束线末端,主要仪器设备包括:束流强度监测用电离室系统、狭缝及激光对准光路系统、多维精密样品移动台及其步进马达驱动系统、体视显微镜及电视观测系统、Si(Li)能量色散谱仪系统等,实验装置在微区荧光分析中具有很清的灵敏度(绝对检测限达到10^－10－10^—13g,相对检测限为Nμg/g-N0.1μg/g级,在全反射XRF实验条件下,相对检测限为1-5ng/g),良好的空间分辨率(厚样几十μm,生物薄样200μm).本实验站在地学、生命科学、材料科学等方面开展了大量的研究工作.     

Radiation transfer in absorbing-scattering liquids—I. Radiance and flux measurements

Radiation measurements have been made in highly absorbing and scattering aqueous suspensions for which interface reflectivities, as well as suspension properties, can significantly influence results. Measurements were made for the spectral band from 0.40 to 0.68 μm, using probes which determined vertical and directional distributions of the radiance, as well as the vertical distribution of the downwelling flux. Agreement between the separate measurements has established confidence in the experimental procedures, and the data have been used to delineate the effect of the suspension opacity, albedo and bottom reflectivity on the radiation field.     

Radiation dose measurements for staff members involved in holmium-166 preclinical trial

AimNeutron-activated holmium-166 (¹⁶⁶Ho) is an excellent radionuclide for internal radiation therapy (Eβmax = 1.84 MeV) with an appropriate half-life (26.8 h), which emits photons (81 keV, 6.2%) suitable to be detected by gamma cameras. Preparing and injecting radiopharmaceuticals containing beta/gamma emitting holmium-166 implies a risk of exceeding the upper limit for skin and hand radiation equivalent doses (500 mSv/an). This study was aimed to estimate the whole body and finger exposure for staff responsible for dose preparation, dose dispensing, and dose injection of holmium-166 therapy.MethodsTo measure the finger dose from external exposure, all staff members wore TLD dosimeters. Personal dose equivalents Hp(10) were measured using electronic personal dosimeters (EPD MK2, Thermo Fischer Scientific) placed on the left side of the chest. During our study, staff members administered more than 40 ¹⁶⁶Ho-based therapies for preclinical trial. Appropriate radiation safety procedures and shielding were applied at each stage.ResultsIn this study, the whole body doses were 2.80 ± 1.56 nSv MBq⁻¹ for one ¹⁶⁶Ho-therapy preparation/formulation, and 2.68 ± 1.70 nSv MBq⁻¹ for one intravenous injection. Maximum finger doses were 2.9 ± 0.2 μSv MBq⁻¹ and 2.5 ± 0.3 μSv MBq⁻¹ for preparation and injection, respectively (activities injected: 72 ± 3 MBq).ConclusionExtrapolated annual doses from 300 ¹⁶⁶Ho radionuclide therapies were lower than the annual limit doses for skin and the whole body, 500 mSv and 20 mSv, respectively, reported in the European Directive EURATOM 96/29 when applying appropriate radiation protection standards. However, these doses have to be added to other diagnostic or therapeutic protocols, performed in preclinical facilities.