Photooxidation of polymers: Relating material properties to chemical changes

This paper is devoted to a comprehensive study of the photo-oxidation of polymeric materials with the goal of correlating modifications of the polymer properties at the molecular and macroscopic levels. Several techniques were used to characterise the modifications of the chemical properties and mechanical behaviour over time under UV light. The methodology was developed on materials used as organic coatings; initially, a well-characterised phenoxy resin (PKHJ^®) was chosen as a model and then the approach was applied to an acrylate-melamine thermoset currently used as a topcoat in the automotive industry. Analysis of degraded samples by IR spectroscopy allowed us to propose a photo-oxidation mechanism. This mechanism suggested that chain scission occurred under photo-oxidation. To entirely understand the degradation of the polymers, gel fraction, thermoporosimetry, DMA, AFM nanoindentation and micro-hardness determinations were performed. The results showed that crosslinking reactions occurred in competition with chain scission and explained for the first time why crosslinking reactions were quite prevalent. Based on the obtained results, quantitative correlations were made between the various criteria of degradation, thus relating the chemical structure changes to the mechanical property modifications.     

Novel semisquaraine regioisomers: isolation, divergent chemical reactivity and photophysical properties

A zwitterionic semisquaraine 1,3-regioisomer which exhibits distinct photophysical properties and chemical reactivity was isolated. Uniquely, this isomer has been identified as the reactive intermediate in the squaraine dye formation reaction rather than the neutral 1,2-isomer and opens up new avenues for the synthesis of novel dyes for optoelectronic applications.     

Semilocalized approach to investigation of chemical reactivity

Application of the power series for the one‐electron density matrix 36 to the case of two interacting molecules is shown to yield a semilocalized approach to investigate chemical reactivity, which is characterized by the following distinctive features: (1) Electron density (ED) redistributions embracing orbitals of the reaction centers of both molecules and of their neighboring fragments are studied instead of the total intermolecular interaction energy; (2) the ED redistributions are expressed directly in the basis of fragmental orbitals (FOs) without passing to the basis of delocalized molecular orbitals (MOs) of initial molecules; (3) terms describing the ED redistributions due to an intermolecular contact arise as additive corrections to the purely monomolecular terms and thereby may be analyzed independently; (4) local ED redistributions only between orbitals of the reaction centers of both molecules are described by lower‐order terms of the power series, whereas those embracing both the reaction centers and their neighborhoods are represented by higher‐order terms. As opposed to the standard perturbative methods based on invoking the delocalized (canonical) MOs of isolated molecules, the results of the approach suggested are in‐line with the well‐known intuition‐based concepts of the classic chemistry concerning reactivity, namely, with the assumption about different roles of the reaction center and of its neighborhood in a chemical process, with the expectation about extinction of the indirect influence of a certain fragment (substituent) when its distance from the reaction center grows, etc. Such a parallelism yields quantum chemical analogs for the classic concepts and thereby gives an additional insight into their nature. The scope of validity of these concepts also is discussed. Applicability of the approach suggested to specific chemical problems is illustrated by a brief consideration of the S_N2 and Ad_E2 reactions. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Quantum Chem 94: 302–316, 2003     

Ketene functionalized polyethylene: control of cross-link density and material properties

The functionalization and cross-linking of polyethylene is synthetically challenging, commonly relying on highly optimized radical based postpolymerization strategies. To address these difficulties, a norbornene monomer containing Meldrum's acid is shown to be effectively copolymerized with polyethylene using a nickel α-iminocarbaxamidato complex, providing high-melting, semicrystalline polymers with a tunable incorporation of the functional comonomer. Upon heating the copolymer to common polyethylene processing temperatures, the thermolysis of Meldrum's acid to ketene provides the desired reactive group. This simple and versatile methodology does not require small molecule radical sources or catalysts, and the dimerization of the in situ generated ketenes is shown to provide tunable cross-linking densities in polyethylene. Subsequent rheological and tensile experiments illustrate the ability to tune cross-linked polyethylene properties by comonomer incorporation and elucidate valuable structure/property relationships in these materials. This study illustrates the power of well-defined and synthetically accessible functional groups in polyolefin synthesis and functionalization.     

Bio-functionalisation to enzymatically control the solution properties of a self-supporting polymeric material

Molecular self-assembly permits the spontaneous aggregation of a variety of low molecular weight amino acid subunits into highly ordered aggregates. Functionalisation of water soluble poly(allylamine) with acetyl protected dialanine enables the formation of a biopolymer self-supporting material (SSM). The presence of an enzyme cleavable dipeptide linker renders the SSM responsive to disruption by a targeted proteolytic enzyme.     

Identifying hazardous chemical reactivity

Hazardous chemical reactivity is chemical reaction that can produce detonation, deflagration or runaway reaction, which can possibly lead to thermal explosion. In the course of the development of a chemical manufacturing process, the raw materials, process streams, isolated intermediates, final product (and the variations of these that are likely to be caused by some process upset) must all be evaluated to determine the potential of each for hazardous chemical reactivity. Although toxic, ecotoxic and flammability hazards may also result from reactivity, this short article is limited to a review of the general strategy and thermal analytical methods used to identify hazards due to the rapid and uncontrolled release of energy by reaction. It is intended as an introduction to the field, and so provides numerous references to the basic sources.     

Extended hückel theory applied to chemical reactivity

Wave functions and energies are calculated for cyclopentadiene, cyclopentadienone, and maleic anhydride under the LCAO-MO approximation with a basis set of atomic orbitals which is comprised of all valence electrons. The geometries of the molecules, required as inputs to the MO calculations, are determined with a procedure which minimizes the ring angular deformation energy. The various possible Diels-Alder reactions of these compounds are then considered. Second-order perturbation theory, with variable overlap integrals and including all interactions, is used to estimate the energies of transition intermediates or states which correspond closely to complexes. Predicted endo-exo isomeric adduct ratios are in agreement with experimentally known values. Predictions of the relative rates for Diels-Alder reactions reflect the correct order and magnitude of reactivity, where experimental results are known.

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Zusammenfassung Für Cyclopentadien, Cyclopentadienon und Maleinsäureanhydrid werden Wellenfunktionen und Energien berechnet, wobei die verwendete Basis des LCAO-MO-Verfahrens die atomaren Orbitale aller Valenzelektronen umfaßt. Die Geometrie der Moleküle wird durch Minimisierung der winkelabhängigen Deformationsenergie des Ringes bestimmt. Eine Störungsrechnung 2. Ordnung mit Einschluß aller Wechselwirkungen und variablen Werten für die Überlappungsintegrale ermöglicht die Abschätzung der Energien von Übergangszuständen oder Zuständen, die -Komplexen sehr ähnlich sind. Die Voraussagen über das Verhältnis von endo-/exo-isomeren Addukten stimmen mit den experimentellen Werten überein; desgleichen die Aussagen über die relativen Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten.

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Résumé Les fonctions d'onde et les énergies sont calculées pour le cyclopentadiène, la cyclopentadienone et l'anhydride maléique, dans l'approximation LCAO-MO, avec une base d'orbitales atomiques englobant tous les électrons de valence. Les géométries moléculaires, données de base du calcul, sont déterminées par un procédé de minimisation de l'énergie de déformation angulaire du cycle. On étudie les différentes réactions de Diels-Alder possibles pour ces composés. Les énergies des intermédiaires réactifs ou des états qui correspondent étroitement à des complexes , sont estimées a l'aide de la théorie des perturbations au second ordre, avec des intégrales de recouvrement variables et en tenant compte de toutes les interactions. Les rapports ainsi prévus entre les composés d'addition isomères endo et exo sont en accord avec les valeurs expérimentales connues. Les prévisions des vitesses relatives des réactions de Diels-Alder reflètent correctement l'ordre et l'importance de la réactivité expérimentale connue.

     

Using the rotaxane mechanical bond to enhance chemical reactivity

Rates of cycloreversion for squaraine rotaxane mono(endoperoxides) were enhanced by structural modifications that increased cross-component steric destabilization of the inward directed 9,10-anthracene endoperoxide group. The largest rate enhancements were obtained when the surrounding macrocycle contained two 2,6-pyridine dicarboxamide bridging units, which induced a cavity contraction effect. The precursor fluorescent, near-IR, squaraine rotaxanes are effectively photostable because the mono(endoperoxide) products, formed by reaction with photogenerated singlet oxygen, rapidly cyclorevert back to the original squaraine rotaxane.     

Modeling chemical reactivity in emulsions

Until relatively recently, modeling chemical reactivity in emulsions has proved refractory. The problem lies in developing good methods for determining the distributions of reactants because classical separation of the phases by physical methods do not work, which prevents measurement of the distributions of reactants and components between the oil, interfacial and aqueous regions in emulsions. Without this understanding, they cannot be used efficiently as reaction media. We are using a physical-organic chemistry approach grounded in thermodynamics and inspired by the prior success of pseudophase kinetic models developed for association colloids such as micelles microemulsions, and vesicles. In emulsions, as in association colloids, the observed rate constant depends on the concentrations of reactants in each region and on medium effects. The medium effects reflect the solvent properties of a reaction region and the distributions of reactants depend on their solubilities in each region. Here we introduce: (a) the current concepts and basic assumptions employed to interpret chemical reactivity in nonionic and ionic emulsions; (b) several approaches for estimating the partition constants for substrates between the oil-interfacial, P_O^I, and water-interfacial, P_W^I, regions of the emulsions; and (c) methods for determining the rate constant in the interfacial region, k_I. The results demonstrate that pseudophase kinetic analyses provide a unique, versatile, and robust solution to interpreting chemical reactivity in emulsions. The approach permits identifying the relative importance of various emulsion properties such as oil hydrophobicity, emulsifier structure and HLB, temperature, and acidity on reactant distributions. Representative results for antioxidants are included. The approach offers a new route for identifying most efficient antioxidant for a particular food application.     

Topological aspects of chemical reactivity

The technique of the so-called More O'Ferrall diagrams was modified by incorporating the framework of recently introduced topological theory of chemical reactivity. On the basis of this modification, a new simple criterion was introduced, allowing the unequivocal classification of the mechanisms of pericyclic reactions from the point of view of concertedness and/or nonconcertedness.     

Hydrophobic interactions and chemical reactivity

This perspective describes how kinetic studies of organic reactions can be used to increase our understanding of hydrophobic interactions. In turn, our understanding of hydrophobic interactions can be used as a tool to influence chemical reactions.     

Gold-conductive polymer nanoparticles: a hybrid material with enhanced photonic reactivity to environmental stimuli

We have designed a simple synthetic procedure to encapsulate colloidal gold nanoparticles by electrostatic adsorption with water-soluble poly(aniline-2-carboxylic acid). The composite nanoparticles are stable in aqueous buffer and retain the respective optical reactivity of the gold colloid to refractive index increases, and of the conductive polymer to pH changes and oxidoreduction. The new composite displays, however, significant enhancements in photonic performance when compared to the individual components, which seem to result from electronic interplay between the two materials in the hybrid structure. The enhanced photonic reactivity of the composite structure offers new opportunities for biosensing application.     

Application of the semilocalized approach to chemical reactivity of butadiene

The semilocalized approach to chemical reactivity (J. Mol. Struct. (Theochem) 588 (2002) 99; Int. J. Quant. Chem. 94 (2003) 302) is applied to study the addition reaction of an electrophile or nucleophile to the butadiene molecule. In accordance with the classical concept of the reaction center and its neighborhood (substituent), only one of the two H₂C=CH-fragments of butadiene is supposed to be under a direct attack of the reagent, whereas the remaining H₂C=CH-group is assumed to play the role of the substituent and thereby to participate in the process indirectly by exerting certain electron-donating or accepting effect upon the former group and/or the reagent. The main aim of the study consists in revealing the role of the H₂C=CH-substituent in the formation of the known higher reactivity of the terminal carbon atom of the attacked C=C-bond (as compared to the internal atom) irrespective of the nature of the reagent. To this end, we seek to obtain an explicit algebraic representation of the interdependence between the direction and the extent of the total influence of the H₂C=CH-substituent, on the one hand, and the nature of the reagent, on the other hand. The expressions for electron density and bond order redistributions among separate fragments of contacting molecules derived previously in the form of power series are shown to yield the above-anticipated representation. On this basis, it is demonstrated that the electron-donating effect of the initially occupied (bonding) orbital of the substituent and the electron-accepting effect of its initially vacant (antibonding) orbital upon the remaining fragments of the whole reacting system may be considered independently whatever the nature of the reagent. However, a strong interdependence is established between the actual relative extents of these two components of the total effect of the H₂C=CH-group and the electron-donating (accepting) properties of the reagent. Moreover, this group of atoms is shown to manifest itself as an electron-donating (accepting) substituent under influence of an electrophilic (nucleophilic) attack. Using this principal result of the paper, the actual reactivity of butadiene with respect to electrophile (nucleophile) is interpreted by invoking a model system of a substituted ethene containing a simple (one-orbital) electron-donating (accepting) substituent, and a terminal addition easily follows for both types of the reagent.     

Temperature-dependent approach to chemical reactivity concepts in density functional theory

The chemical reactivity concepts of density functional theory are studied through a unified view in the temperature-dependent approach provided by the grand canonical ensemble. This procedure leads to a more general perspective that enriches our understanding of the behavior of the average energy and its derivatives with respect to the average number of electrons, provides alternative definitions for those quantities that are “ill defined” at zero temperature, and allows one to determine the relationships among reactivity concepts at any temperature. In particular, it has been found that at high temperatures the parabolic model for reactivity indicators may be justified through the electronic entropy term in the Helmholtz free energy, and that at nonzero temperatures there is an electronic heat capacity contribution to the average energy. In summary, the unified view of the temperature-dependent approach is an important complement to the zero-temperature formulation that clarifies fundamental issues therein.     

Similarity approach to chemical reactivity. Torquoselectivity in pericyclic reactions

The recently proposed topological similarity index was applied to the elucidation of the interesting phenomenon of pericyclic reactivity, the so-called torquoselectivity. It has been shown that the similarity approach is indeed able to provide a simple and consistent explanation of this phenomenon even in nontrivial cases of counter-intuitive contrasteric control.     

Metallorganic routes to nanoscale iron and titanium oxide particles encapsulated in mesoporous alumina: formation, physical properties, and chemical reactivity

Iron and titanium oxide nanoparticles have been synthesized in parallel mesopores of alumina by a novel organometallic "chimie douce" approach that uses bis(toluene)iron(0) (1) and bis(toluene)titanium(0) (2) as precursors. These complexes are molecular sources of iron and titanium in a zerovalent atomic state. In the case of 1, core shell iron/iron oxide particles with a strong magnetic coupling between both components, as revealed by magnetic measurements, are formed. M?ssbauer data reveal superparamagnetic particle behavior with a distinct particle size distribution that confirms the magnetic measurements. The dependence of the M?ssbauer spectra on temperature and particle size is explained by the influence of superparamagnetic relaxation effects. The coexistence of a paramagnetic doublet and a magnetically split component in the spectra is further explained by a distribution in particle size. From M?ssbauer parameters the oxide phase can be identified as low-crystallinity ferrihydrite oxide. In agreement with quantum size effects observed in UV-visible studies, TEM measurements determine the size of the particles in the range 5-8 nm. The particles are mainly arranged alongside the pore walls of the alumina template. TiO2 nanoparticles are formed by depositing 2 in mesoporous alumina template. This produces metallic Ti, which is subsequently oxidized to TiO2 (anatase) within the alumina pores. UV-visible studies show a strong quantum confinement effect for these particles. From UV-visible investigations the particle size is determined to be around 2 nm. XPS analysis of the iron- and titania- embedded nanoparticles reveal the presence of Fe2O3 and TiO2 according to experimental binding energies and the experimental line shapes. Ti4+ and Fe3+ are the only oxidation states of the particles which can be determined by this technique. Hydrogen reduction of the iron/iron-oxide nanoparticles at 500 degrees C under flowing H2/N2 produces a catalyst, which is active towards formation of carbon nanotubes by a CVD process. Depending on the reaction conditions, the formation of smaller carbon nanotubes inside the interior of larger carbon nanotubes within the alumina pores can be achieved. This behavior can be understood by means of selectively turning on and off the iron catalyst by adjusting the flow rate of the gaseous carbon precursor in the CVD process.     

Preparation, properties, and chemical reactivity of alpha-nitrosulfoximines, chiral analogues of alpha-nitrosulfones

Racemic N-methyl-S-(nitromethyl)-S-phenylsulfoximine (2) was prepared in 87% yield via alkaline nitration of N,S-dimethyl-S-phenylsulfoximine. Optically active N-methyl-S-(nitromethyl)-S-phenylsulfoximine (both enantiomers) was prepared in similar fashion. Reaction of racemic 2 with p-chlorophenyl isocyanate and a catalytic quantity of triethylamine in the presence of furan afforded dihydrofuroisoxazole 5, the product of nitrile oxide cycloaddition, in 42% yield (65:35 diastereomer ratio). Reaction of the dihydrofuroisoxazole 5 with phenyllithium and methyllithium afforded replacement of the sulfoximine group by phenyl and methyl, respectively. Reaction of racemic 2 with aromatic isocyanates and potassium carbonate afforded C-acylation products in 70-78% yield which existed as the ylide tautomers 9a,b. Methylation of racemic 2 afforded the C-alkylate N-methyl-S-(1-nitroethyl)-S-phenylsulfoximine (13), existing as the neutral tautomer.     

DNA-templated organic synthesis: nature's strategy for controlling chemical reactivity applied to synthetic molecules

In contrast to the approach commonly taken by chemists, nature controls chemical reactivity by modulating the effective molarity of highly dilute reactants through macromolecule-templated synthesis. Nature's approach enables complex mixtures in a single solution to react with efficiencies and selectivities that cannot be achieved in conventional laboratory synthesis. DNA-templated organic synthesis (DTS) is emerging as a surprisingly general way to control the reactivity of synthetic molecules by using nature's effective-molarity-based approach. Recent developments have expanded the scope and capabilities of DTS from its origins as a model of prebiotic nucleic acid replication to its current ability to translate DNA sequences into complex small-molecule and polymer products of multistep organic synthesis. An understanding of fundamental principles underlying DTS has played an important role in these developments. Early applications of DTS include nucleic acid sensing, small-molecule discovery, and reaction discovery with the help of translation, selection, and amplification methods previously available only to biological molecules.