X-ray dosimetry using SAMOS type read-only memory

An X-ray dosimeter has been investigated with the use of a PROM of a SAMOS (stacked gate avalanche injection type MOS) structure. The SAMOS is employed as a memory IC. The SAMOS is different from a FAMOS (floating gate avalanche injection type MOS) in the presence of a control gate, with the use of this electrode, the analog amount of electrical charge accumulated in the floating gate can be measured. The X-ray dose can be determined by decreasing the amount of electron injected into floating gate by avalanche effect through X-ray irradiation. This dosimeter shows good linearity and flat energy response. The dosimeter has no effect on fading.     

A new dosimetry system using a portable reader

A new dosimeter material has been developed which consists of a radiation sensitive layer on a reflective base, and utilises a portable microdensitometer for response measurement. The instrument, modified from a readily available hand-held unit, is a standard in the printing industry. The system was designed with the demands of ‘in plant’ use in mind, and is equally suitable for either gamma or electron beam irradiation. The dosimeter material develops an easily visible colour change, which is quantitative, highly reproducible and stable over the dose range of approximately 5–45 kGy. The results presented demonstrate the calibration and characteristics of the dosimetry system, and explore some of its potential.     

Recent developments of charge injection and charge transfer in DNA

The question of whether and how electrons migrate through DNA was a matter of controversial discussion over the last ten years. Today, there is no doubt that long distance charge migration through DNA exists and most scientists explain this process by a multistep hopping mechanism. This feature article presents recent developments of our group on the injection of a positive charge into DNA bases and the transfer of the charge between the DNA bases. The influence of the donor, the nature of the bridge, and the distance between the donor and the acceptor are discussed.     

Extension of measurable range of film dosimetry by a low energy X-ray absorption method

The availability of an X-ray absorption technique employing a very low power X-ray tube was examined to extend measurable range for photographic film dosimetry. The X-ray tube having titanium target was operated at 8 kV and 0.2 microA to emit Ti KX-rays of moderate intensity. The degree of the Ti KX-ray absorption, defined as similar to photographic density, was measured for the two kinds of badge film, Fuji gamma-ray badge film and Kodak personal monitoring film, type 2 exposed for 60Co or 137Cs gamma-rays and developed by the respective standard procedures. The experimental results show that the dosimetric range of 0.01-100 R for the Fuji film and 0.03-1,000 R for the Kodak film may be easily measured by 1 minute counting with the relative statistical error (sigma) of 10%.     

Small-angle X-ray scattering from a dual-component organogel to exhibit a charge transfer interaction

The structure of a dual-component organogel consisting of methyl 4,6-O-(p-aminobenzylidene)-alpha-D-glucopyranoside and methyl 4,6-O-(p-nitrobenzylidene)-alpha-D-glucopyranoside in diphenyl ether was investigated with small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The individual components gelatinized the solvent to yield a colorless gel and the gel fiber consisted of the crystal, providing the crystalline peaks at the same diffraction angles as those of the solid samples. When the components were mixed in equimolar ratio and dissolved in diphenyl ether, a yellow gel was formed and the crystalline peaks disappeared. For all compositions, the SAXS profiles were well fitted by a cylinder model. The cross-sectional radius of gyration, r(c), was determined from the cross-sectional Guinier plot (qI vs q(2), where I and q are the scattering intensity and the magnitude of the scattering vector). The value of r(c) reached a minimum of 3.0 nm at the equimolar composition. By correcting the data for the thermal scattering background, we obtained the entire SAXS profile for the equimolar dual-component gel. From this profile, the radial electron density distribution was determined and the radius of the cylinder was estimated to be 2.6 nm. The electron density distribution thus obtained revealed that four gelator molecules are packed in the sectional direction. This model was consistent with the size of the gelator molecules.     

Environmental dosimetry using high-sensitivity TL detectors

Two highly sensitive thermoluminescent (TL) materials (Al₂O₃:C and CaSO₄:Tm) were investigated for environmental monitoring. We compared their response to low and to high linear energy transfer (LET) radiations in order to develop a two-element TL system.The relative TL efficiency for α-particle irradiation as compared to γ-exposure was about 0.04 and 0.5 for Al₂O₃:C and CaSO₄:Tm, respectively. Measurements of external environmental radiation doses in an international balloon experiment were performed with our highly-sensitive TL system having various sensitivities to low and to high LET radiations.     

Radiation induced charge injection in metal-polyethylene contacts

Charge injection on exposure to X-ray pulses in metal-low density polyethylene (LDPE) contact is studied. The differences between injection from Al and Au electrodes have been examined. Internal electric field strenghh on the Au-LDPE contact equal to about 5 MV/m was found. Energy density of surface states in LDPE foil was defined as 3.2·10¹⁵ eV⁻¹m ⁻².     

Direct generation of ion beam images with a two-dimensional charge injection device

The use of a two-dimensional charge injection device (CID) to directly image the spatial profile of impingent positively charged ions is described. By this approach, no prior conversion from an ion beam to a photon image is required. Because of the positive response of the device to plasma photons, ions that emanated from the radiofrequency glow discharge source were diverted around a photon stop and focused onto the CID. The resultant ion images were digitized via an external image processor and corrected for dark current contributions. Two-dimensional ion images and single pixel line profiles are presented.     

Dimensional changes as a function of charge injection in single-walled carbon nanotubes

Motivated by the central importance of charge-induced dimensional changes for carbon nanotube electromechanical actuators, we here predict changes in nanotube length and diameter as a function of charge injection for armchair and zigzag nanotubes having different diameters. Density functional theory with periodic boundary conditions is used, which we show provides results consistent with experimental observations for intercalated graphites. Strain-versus-charge relationships are predicted from dimensional changes calculated with a uniform background charge ("jellium") for representing the counterions. These jellium calculations are consistent with presented calculations that include specific counterions for intercalated graphite, showing that hybridization between the ions and the graphite sheets is unimportant. The charge-strain relationships calculated with the jellium approximation for graphite and isolated single-walled nanotubes are asymmetric with respect to the sign of charge transfer. The dependence of nanotube strain on charge approaches that for a graphite sheet for intermediate-sized metallic nanotubes and for larger diameter semiconducting nanotubes. However, the strain-charge curves strongly depend on nanotube type when the nanotube diameter is small. This reflects both the dependence of the frontier orbitals for the semiconducting nanotubes on the nanotube type and the pi-sigma mixing when the nanotube diameter is small.     

Accidental and retrospective dosimetry using TL method

Retrospective dosimetry is one of the most important tools of accidental dosimetry for dose estimation when dose measurement was not planned. In the affected area many objects can be applied as natural dosimeters. The paper discusses our recent investigations on various electronic components and common salt (NaCl) having useful thermoluminescence (TL) properties. Among materials investigated the electronic components of cell phones seem promising for retrospective dosimetry purposes, having high TL responses, proper glow curve peaks and the intensity of TL peaks vs. gamma dose received provided nearly linear response in the dose range of 10 mGy–1.5 Gy.     

Zeolite-mediated photochemical charge separation using a surface-entrapped ruthenium-polypyridyl complex

Employing the strategy of quaternization of the 2,2' N atoms of the conjugated bipyridine ligand 1,4-bis[2-(4'-methyl-2,2'-bipyrid-4-yl)ethenyl]benzene (L), a polypyridyl complex of ruthenium(II) was tethered on the surface of zeolite Y. Electrochemical and spectroscopic properties of the complex suggest that, upon visible photoexcitation of the MLCT band, the electron is localized on the conjugated ligand rather than the bipyridines. Electron transfer from the surface complex to bipyridinium ions (methyl viologen) within the zeolite was observed. Visible light photolysis of the ruthenium-zeolite solid ion-exchanged with diquat and suspended in a propyl viologen sulfonate solution led to permanent formation of the blue propyl viologen sulfonate radical ion in solution. The model that is proposed involves intrazeolitic charge transfer to ion-exchanged diquat followed by interfacial (zeolite to solution) electron transfer to propyl viologen sulfonate in solution. Because of the slow intramolecular back-electron-transfer reaction and the forward electron propagation via the ion-exchanged diquat, Ru(III) is formed. This Ru(III) complex formed on the zeolite is proposed to react rapidly with water in the presence of light, followed by reaction with the propyl viologen sulfonate, to form pyridones and regeneration of Ru(II), which then continues the photochemical process.     

Neutron dosimetry device using PADC nuclear track detectors

A device consisting of poly allyl diglycol carbonate (PADC) foils with a polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) radiator was calibrated in order to perform the dosimetry of an ²⁴¹Am-Be source covering a dose range from 0 to 3.1 mSv. Working conditions were established for a good visualization and counting of tracks: chemical attack was made in two steps with different solutions and etching times. A good fit was obtained for the dose as a function of the number of tracks per unit surface area. The calculated decision threshold was 0.12 mSv.     

Site affinity effects upon charge injection into siloxane-based monolayers

Submolecular electrical information is successfully derived by applying element-specific, chemically resolved electrical measurements to a covalently bound stilbazole-based monolayer on a silicon substrate. Pronounced affinity effects are found in the response of adjacent atomic sites to external charge injection, accompanied by intramolecular polarization variations. These noncontact electrical read-out capabilities may provide a first entry toward the realization of organic devices based on submolecular electrical units.     

Approaching charge balance in organic light-emitting diodes by tuning charge injection barriers with mixed monolayers

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of binary mixtures of 1-butylphosphonic acid and the trifluoromethyl-terminated analogue (4,4,4-trifluoro-1-butylphosphonic acid) were formed on ITO surfaces to tune the work function of ITO over a range of 5.0 to 5.75 eV by varying the mixing ratio of the two adsorbents. The mixed SAM-modified ITO surfaces were used as the anode in the fabrication of OLED devices with a configuration of ITO/SAM/HTL/Alq3/MX/Al, where HTL was the NPB or BPAPF hole-transporting layer and MX was the LiF or Cs(2)CO(3) injection layer. It was shown that, depending on the HTL or MX used, the maximum device current and the maximum luminance efficiency occurred with anodes of different modifications because of a shift in the point of hole/electron carrier balance. This provides information on the charge balance in the device and points to the direction to improve the performance.     

Nonlinear X-ray diffraction. Determination of valence electron charge distributions

A new, nonlinear X-ray diffraction technique is described which permits the direct experimental determination of the valence electron charge density in a wide variety of covalently bonded materials.     

Computer simulation study of water using a fluctuating charge model

Hydrogen bonding in small water clusters is studied through computer simulation methods using a sophisticated, empirical model of interaction developed by Ricket al (S W Rick, S J Stuart and B J Berne 1994J. Chem. Phys. 101 6141) and others. The model allows for the charges on the interacting sites to fluctuate as a function of time, depending on their local environment. The charge flow is driven by the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms within the water molecule, thus effectively mimicking the effects of polarization of the charge density. The potential model is thus transferable across all phases of water. Using this model, we have obtained the minimum energy structures of water clusters up to a size often. The cluster structures agree well with experimental data. In addition, we are able to distinctly identify the hydrogens that form hydrogen bonds based on their charges alone, a feature that is not possible in simulations using fixed charge models. We have also studied the structure of liquid water at ambient conditions using this fluctuating charge model.     

Continuum source-atomic absorption spectrometry using a two-dimensional charge coupled device

A single element continuum source-atomic absorption spectrometer (CS-AAS) using a two-dimensional charge coupled array detector (2D-CCD) was assembled for use with graphite furnace atomization. The two-dimensional CCD was a split-frame transfer array, was thinned and back-illuminated for high quantum efficiency at approximately 200 nm, and was capable of an 80-Hz frame rate with a read noise of <15 electrons. The transfer of charges from the integrating arrays to the storage arrays took 0.65 ms, less than 4% of the frame period (16.42 ms). The transfer of charges to the storage array was perpendicular to the wavelength axis, eliminating source flicker noise, and was implemented without masking, producing vertical smearing. The smearing was manifested as a continuum background and was corrected using pixels between orders. The two-dimensional array, in conjunction with the high-resolution echelle spectrometer, allowed measurement of absorbance with respect to wavelength and height in the furnace. Computed absorbances were corrected for stray radiation and non-specific background absorption. Detection limits were equal to those for line source AAS, with the exception of As (193.7 nm) and Se (196.0 nm).     

Microanalysis of polymers using a windowless energy-dispersive X-ray detector

The surface compositions of various polymeric films, grown electrochemically on platinum foils, have been investigated by energy-dispersive x-ray analysis in conjunction with scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS). Comparison of the relative area ratios of peaks for the C and N K_emission lines show that the EDS may be used to study the surface composition of polymers. The evidence presented strongly suggests that there is limited structural degradation and the elemental composition is not changed under the electron beam at relatively low accelerating voltages. This technique statistically samples the repeat units of the polymer. For samples grown in both aqueous and nonaqueous solutions. SEM/EDS provides evidence for extensive contamination with oxygen.     

Analysis of a polydisperse system using small-angle X-ray scattering

The small-angle X-ray data from a polydisperse solution of sodium silicate have been measured in the concentration range 3.6–169 mg/cm³ using aKratky camera. The following values of the particle parameters were obtained: the average radius of gyration =7.5 nm, the average particle weight =900 000, the average volume =671 nm³, and the average particle surface area =717 nm².From the above parameters and the apparent specific volume, analysed to be 0.422 cm³/g, the water content of the silicate particles was determined to be 3% (by weight).From small-angle X-ray measurements, performed on solutions exposed to a hydrodynamic field, it is indicated that at least the larger particles in the solution have a relatively symmetric shape. Based on this observation it was assumed that the particles in solution are spherical, and particle size distribution functions were calculated using a least-squares program. It was found that the distribution cannot be described by a simple function, such as aGaussian function; instead, the distribution follows a histogram with three local maxima.Dedicated to Prof. Dr. Dr.Otto Kratky, Graz, on the occasion of his 80th birthday.