Characterization of New Specific Copper Chelators as Potential Drugs for the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease

The non‐controlled redox‐active metal ions, especially copper, in the brain of patients with Alzheimer disease (AD) should be considered at the origin of the intense oxidative damage in the AD brain. Several bis(8‐aminoquinoline) ligands, such as 1 and PA1637, are able to chelate Cu²⁺ with high affinity, and are specific chelators of copper with respect to iron and zinc. They are able to efficiently extract Cu²⁺ from a metal‐loaded amyloid. In addition, these tetradentate ligands are specific for the chelation of Cu²⁺ compared with Cu⁺. Consequently, the copper ion is easily released from the bis(8‐aminoquinoline) ligand under reductive conditions, and can be trapped again by a protein having some affinity for copper such as human serum albumin (HSA) proteins. In addition, the copper is not efficiently released from [Cu(CQ)₂] in reductive conditions. The catalytic production of H₂O₂ by [Cu²⁺‐Aβ_1?28]/ascorbate is inhibited in vitro by the bis(8‐aminoquinoline) 1 , suggesting that 1 should be able to play a protective role against oxidative damages induced by copper‐loaded amyloids.     

The Glutathione/Metallothionein System Challenges the Design of Efficient O2‐Activating Copper Complexes

Copper complexes are of medicinal and biological interest, including as anticancer drugs designed to cleave intracellular biomolecules by O₂ activation. To exhibit such activity, the copper complex must be redox active and resistant to dissociation. Metallothioneins (MTs) and glutathione (GSH) are abundant in the cytosol and nucleus. Because they are thiol‐rich reducing molecules with high Cu^I affinity, they are potential competitors for a copper ion bound in a copper drug. Herein, we report the investigation of a panel of Cu^I/Cu^II complexes often used as drugs, with diverse coordination chemistries and redox potentials. We evaluated their catalytic activity in ascorbate oxidation based on redox cycling between Cu^I and Cu^II, as well as their resistance to dissociation or inactivation under cytosolically relevant concentrations of GSH and MT. O₂‐activating Cu^I/Cu^II complexes for cytosolic/nuclear targets are generally not stable against the GSH/MT system, which creates a challenge for their future design.     

Mechanistic Insights into the Oxidative Coupling of N‐Heterocyclic Carbenes within the Coordination Sphere of Copper Complexes

The behavior of N‐heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands in organometallic chemistry is hugely important for catalysis, due to the effect of these ligands on catalytic pathways and their involvement in catalyst decomposition. In this report, a combined experimental and computational study is presented, which provides mechanistic understanding of the unprecedented oxidative coupling of NHCs at Cu. The presence of Cu^I–, Cu^II–, and Cu^III–NHC complexes during the process is postulated, with the unusual C_carbene–C_carbene oxidative coupling reaction occurring under extremely mild reaction conditions. This process may represent a novel pathway for the decomposition of Cu–NHC complexes.     

A mixed‐valence chair‐like tetranuclear copper(I,II) cluster with three linking modes of the 3,5‐bis(2‐pyridyl)‐1,2,4‐triazole ligand

In the tetranuclear copper complex tetrakis[μ‐3,5‐bis(2‐pyridyl)‐1,2,4‐triazolido]bis[3,5‐bis(2‐pyridyl)‐1,2,4‐triazolido]dicopper(I)dicopper(II) dihydrate, [Cu^I₂Cu^II₂(C₁₂H₈N₅)₆]·2H₂O, the asymmetric unit is composed of one Cu^I center, one Cu^II center, three anionic 3,5‐bis(2‐pyridyl)‐1,2,4‐triazole (2‐BPT) ligands and one solvent water molecule. The Cu^I and Cu^II centers exhibit [Cu^IN₄] tetrahedral and [Cu^IIN₆] octahedral coordination environments, respectively. The three independent 2‐BPT ligands adopt different chelating modes, which link the copper centers to generate a chair‐like tetranuclear metallomacrocycle with metal–metal distances of about 4.4 × 6.2 Å disposed about a crystallographic inversion center. Furthermore, strong π–π stacking interactions and O—H...N hydrogen‐bonding systems link the tetracopper clusters into a two‐dimensional supramolecular network.     

A density functional theory computational study of the role of ligand on the stability of CuI and CuII species associated with ATRP and SET‐LRP

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and single electron‐transfer living radical polymerization (SET‐LRP) both utilize copper complexes of various oxidation states with N‐ligands to perform their respective activation and deactivation steps. Herein, we utilize DFT (B3YLP) methods to determine the preferred ligand‐binding geometries for Cu/N‐ligand complexes related to ATRP and SET‐LRP. We find that those ligands capable of achieving tetrahedral complexes with Cu^I and trigonal bipyramidal with axial halide complexes with [Cu^IIX]⁺ have higher energies of stabilization. We were able to correlate calculated preferential stabilization of [Cu^IIX]⁺ with those ligands that perform best in SET‐LRP. A crude calculation of energy of disproportionation revealed that the same preferential binding of [Cu^IIX]⁺ results in increased propensity for disproportionation. Finally, by examining the relative energies of the basic steps of ATRP and SET‐LRP, we were able to rationalize the transition from the ATRP mechanism to the SET‐LRP mechanism as we transition from typical nonpolar ATRP solvents to polar SET‐LRP solvents. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 45: 4950–4964, 2007     

The Necessity of Having a Tetradentate Ligand to Extract Copper(II) Ions from Amyloids

The accumulation of redox-active metal ions, in particular copper, in amyloid plaques is considered to the cause of the intensive oxidation damage to the brain of patients with Alzheimers disease (AD). Drug candidates based on a bis(8-aminoquinoline) tetradentate ligand are able to efficiently extract Cu²⁺ from copper-loaded amyloids (Cu–Aβ). Contrarily, in the presence of a bidentate hydroxyquinoline, such as clioquinol, the copper is not released from Aβ, but remains sequestrated within a Aβ–Cu–clioquinol ternary complex that has been characterized by mass spectrometry. Facile extraction of copper(II) at a low amyloid/ligand ratio is essential for the re-introduction of copper in regular metal circulation in the brain. As, upon reduction, the Cu⁺ is easily released from the bis(8-aminoquinoline) ligand unable to accommodate Cu^I, it should be taken by proteins with an affinity for copper. So, the tetradentate bis(8-aminoquinoline) described here might act as a regulator of copper homeostasis.     

The Glutathione/Metallothionein System Challenges the Design of Efficient O2-Activating Copper Complexes

Copper complexes are of medicinal and biological interest, including as anticancer drugs designed to cleave intracellular biomolecules by O₂ activation. To exhibit such activity, the copper complex must be redox active and resistant to dissociation. Metallothioneins (MTs) and glutathione (GSH) are abundant in the cytosol and nucleus. Because they are thiol-rich reducing molecules with high Cu^I affinity, they are potential competitors for a copper ion bound in a copper drug. Herein, we report the investigation of a panel of Cu^I/Cu^II complexes often used as drugs, with diverse coordination chemistries and redox potentials. We evaluated their catalytic activity in ascorbate oxidation based on redox cycling between Cu^I and Cu^II, as well as their resistance to dissociation or inactivation under cytosolically relevant concentrations of GSH and MT. O₂-activating Cu^I/Cu^II complexes for cytosolic/nuclear targets are generally not stable against the GSH/MT system, which creates a challenge for their future design.     

Chemically and Biologically Harmless versus Harmful Ferritin/Copper–Metallothionein Couples

The simultaneous measurement of the decrease of available Fe^II ions and the increase of available Fe^III ions allowed the analysis of the ferroxidase activity of two distinct apoferritins. Although recombinant human apoferritin (HuFtH) rapidly oxidizes Fe^II to Fe^III, this iron is not properly stored in the ferritin cavity, as otherwise occurs in horse‐spleen H/L‐apoferritin (HsFt; H=heavy subunit, L=light subunit). Iron storage in these apoferritins was also studied in the presence of two copper‐loaded mammalian metallothioneins (MT2 and MT3), a scenario that occurs in different brain‐cell types. For HuFtH, unstored Fe^III ions trigger the oxidation of Cu–MT2 with concomitant Cu^I release. In contrast, there is no reaction with Cu–MT2 in the case of HsFt. Similarly, Cu–MT3 does not react during either HuFtH or HsFt iron reconstitution. Significantly, the combination of ferritin and metallothionein isoforms reported in glia and neuronal cells are precisely those combinations that avoid a harmful release of Fe^II and Cu^I ions.     

Copper‐Binding Motifs: Structural and Theoretical Aspects

In this paper, we report the results of a study involving the coordination geometries of Cu^I, Cu^II, and Cu^III crystal structures in the Cambridge Structural Database, and on Cu binding sites in proteins taken from the Protein Data Bank. The motifs used to bind two bridged Cu ions are also described. In addition, we report the results of ab initio molecular‐orbital calculations performed on a variety of model Cu^I/Cu^II complexes (Cu^I/Cu^II?X_nY_m (X, Y=NH₃, SH₂); n+m=4; n=0–4) to provide data on the structural and energetic changes that occur in isolated complexes when the oxidation state of the Cu ion is changed from II to I while the coordination number is conserved. The use of such simple ligands in these calculations eliminates constraints on the geometric changes that may be imposed by more‐complicated ligands.     

Improved Photostability of a CuI Complex by Macrocyclization of the Phenanthroline Ligands

The development of molecular materials for conversion of solar energy into electricity and fuels is one of the most active research areas, in which the light absorber plays a key role. While copper(I)-bis(diimine) complexes [Cu^I(L)₂]⁺ are considered as potent substitutes for [Ru^II(bpy)₃]²⁺, they exhibit limited structural integrity as ligand loss by substitution can occur. In this article, we present a new concept to stabilize copper bis(phenanthroline) complexes by macrocyclization of the ligands which are preorganized around the Cu^I ion. Using oxidative Hay acetylene homocoupling conditions, several Cu^I complexes with varying bridge length were prepared and analyzed. Absorption and emission properties are assessed; rewardingly, the envisioned approach was successful since the flexible 1,4-butadiyl-bridged complex does show enhanced MLCT absorption and emission, as well as improved photostability upon irradiation with a blue LED compared to a reference complex.     

Experimental Evidence for the Involvement of Dinuclear Alkynylcopper(I) Complexes in Alkyne–Azide Chemistry

Dinuclear alkynylcopper(I) ladderane complexes are prepared by a robust and simple protocol involving the reduction of Cu₂(OH)₃OAc or Cu(OAc)₂ by easily oxidised alcohols in the presence of terminal alkynes; they function as efficient catalysts in copper‐catalysed alkyne–azide cycloaddition reactions as predicted by the Ahlquist–Fokin calculations. The same copper(I) catalysts are formed during reactions by using the Sharpless–Fokin protocol. The experimental results also provide evidence that sodium ascorbate functions as a base to deprotonate terminal alkynes and additionally give a convincing alternative explanation for the fact that the Cu^I‐catalysed reactions of certain 1,3‐diazides with phenylacetylene give bis(triazoles) as the major products. The same dinuclear alkynylcopper(I) complexes also function as catalysts in cycloaddition reactions of azides with 1‐iodoalkynes.     

Copper Complexes with New Pyridylpyrazole Based Ligands

We report the synthesis, characterization, and crystal structures of new ligands of the pyridinylpyrazole type, i.e., 3,5‐bis(4‐butoxyphenyl)‐1‐(pyridin‐2‐yl)‐1H‐pyrazole ( L ¹ ) and 3,5‐bis(4‐phenoxyphenyl)‐1‐(pyridin‐2‐yl)‐1H‐pyrazole ( L ² ) (Scheme 1), and the study of their coordination behavior towards Cu^I and Cu^II. The versatility of this type of ligand, which can give access to different coordination spheres about the metal center, depending on the nature of the copper starting material used in the preparation of the complexes (Scheme 2), is illustrated. Thus, pseudo‐tetrahedral Cu^I as well as six‐coordinated tetragonal and distorted tetragonal pyramidal Cu^II derivatives were obtained for [Cu(L)₂]PF₆, [Cu(Cl)₂(L)₂] (L= L ¹ , L ² ), and [Cu(Cl)( L ¹ )₂]PF₆, respectively. We also present a crystallographic support of a distorted octahedral cis‐bis(tetrafluoroborato‐κF)copper(II) compound found for [Cu(BF₄)₂( L ¹ )₂] ( 3 ).     

Synthesis and Structural Characterization of two Novel Copper(I) Complexes with Oxygen Donor

Two novel copper(I) complexes with Cu‐O bonds, [Cu₂L₂(PPh₃)₂](BF₄)₂ ( 1 ) and [Cu(L)(dppeo)](BF₄) ( 2 ) ( L = 6‐(4‐diethylmethylphosphonatephenyl)‐2,2′‐bipyridine, dppeo = bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane monoxide), have been prepared and their structures characterized. In the binuclear complex 1 , the ligand L serves as tridentate donor with the N, N′ and O as coordination atoms, and the two Cu^I atoms are bridged through both P = O donor atoms in different ligand L with a triphenylphosphine molecule as auxiliary ligand. While in mononuclear complex 2 , both ligands L and dppeo behave as bidentate with N^∧N from L and P^∧O from dppeo chelating to Cu^I atom.     

Bis‐copper(II) Complex of Triply‐linked Corrole Dimer and Its Dication

Copper complexes of corroles have recently been a subject of keen interest due to their ligand non‐innocent character and unique redox properties. Here we investigated bis‐copper complex of a triply‐linked corrole dimer that serves as a pair of divalent metal ligands but can be reduced to a pair of trivalent metal ligands. Reaction of triply‐linked corrole dimer 2 with Cu(acac)₂ (acac=acetylacetonate) gave bis‐copper(II) complex 2Cu as a highly planar molecule with a mean‐plane deviation value of 0.020 Å, where the two copper ions were revealed to be divalent by ESR, SQUID, and XPS methods. Oxidation of 2Cu with two equivalents of AgBF₄ gave complex 3Cu , which was characterized as a bis‐copper(II) complex of a dicationic triply‐linked corrole dimer not as the corresponding bis‐copper(III) complex. In accord with this assignment, the structural parameters around the copper ions were revealed to be quite similar for 2Cu and 3Cu . Importantly, the magnetic spin–spin interaction differs depending on the redox‐state of the ligand, being weak ferromagnetic in 2Cu and antiferromagnetic in 3Cu .     

Intermediate Detection in the Casiopeina–Cysteine Interaction Ending in the Disulfide Bond Formation and Copper Reduction

A strategy to improve the cancer therapies involves agents that cause the depletion of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione (GSH), increasing its efflux out of cells and inducing apoptosis in tumoral cells due to the presence of reactive oxygen species. It has been shown that Casiopeina copper complexes caused a dramatic intracellular GSH drop, forming disulfide bonds and reducing Cu^II to Cu^I. Herein, through the determination of the [Cu^II]–SH bond before reduction, we present evidence of the adduct between cysteine and one Casiopeina as an intermediate in the cystine formation and as a model to understand the anticancer activity of copper complexes. Evidence of such an intermediate has never been presented before.     

Hydrogen Bonds Dictate the Coordination Geometry of Copper: Characterization of a Square‐Planar Copper(I) Complex

6,6′′‐Bis(2,4,6‐trimethylanilido)terpyridine (H₂Tpy^NMes) was prepared as a rigid, tridentate pincer ligand containing pendent anilines as hydrogen bond donor groups in the secondary coordination sphere. The coordination geometry of (H₂Tpy^NMes)copper(I)‐halide (Cl, Br and I) complexes is dictated by the strength of the NH–halide hydrogen bond. The Cu^ICl and Cu^IICl complexes are nearly isostructural, the former presenting a highly unusual square‐planar geometry about Cu^I. The geometric constraints provided by secondary interactions are reminiscent of blue copper proteins where a constrained geometry, or entatic state, allows for extremely rapid Cu^I/Cu^II electron‐transfer self‐exchange rates. Cu(H₂Tpy^NMes)Cl shows similar fast electron transfer (≈10⁵ m ^?1 s^?1) which is the same order of magnitude as biological systems.     

Cuprophilic Interactions in and between Molecular Entities

Despite being weak attractive forces, closed-shell metallophilic interactions play important roles in the Group 11 metal complexes on their diverse structural and physical features. A plethora of experimental and computational studies has thus been dedicated to such weak attractive d¹⁰–d¹⁰ interactions, particularly aurophilic and argentophilic interactions. Although d¹⁰–d¹⁰ Cu^I–Cu^I forces had been recognized for four decades, cuprophilic interactions are less explored and they are best evidenced by single-crystal X-ray crystallographic analysis on Cu^I complexes and aggregates thereof, by which precise information about the Cu⋅⋅⋅Cu contacts, shorter than the sum of two van der Waals radii (3.92 Å) between the copper centers concerned can be obtained. Based on recently compelling experimental and spectroscopic evidence for intra- and intermolecular cuprophilic interactions in copper chemistry, the present Minireview summarizes recent progress in the past three decades in the synthesis and structures of multinuclear homometallic copper complexes, whereby supported and unsupported d¹⁰–d¹⁰ Cu^I–Cu^I interactions are at work.     

Poly[tetraamminecopper(II) bis[tris(μ2‐cyanido‐κ2C,N)dicuprate(I)]]: a unique CuI–CuII mixed‐valence complex containing anionic cuprous cyanide layers and [Cu(NH3)4]2+ cations

The title compound, {[Cu(NH₃)₄][Cu(CN)₃]₂}_n, features a Cu^I–Cu^II mixed‐valence CuCN framework based on {[Cu₂(CN)₃]⁻}_n anionic layers and [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ cations. The asymmetric unit contains two different Cu^I ions and one Cu^II ion which lies on a centre of inversion. Each Cu^I ion is coordinated to three cyanide ligands with a distorted trigonal–planar geometry, while the Cu^II ion is ligated by four ammine ligands, with a distorted square‐planar coordination geometry. The interlinkage between Cu^I ions and cyanide bridges produces a honeycomb‐like {[Cu₂(CN)₃]⁻}_n anionic layer containing 18‐membered planar [Cu(CN)]₆ metallocycles. A [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ cation fills each metallocyclic cavity within pairs of exactly superimposed {[Cu₂(CN)₃]⁻}_n anionic layers, but there are no cations between the layers of adjacent pairs, which are offset. Pairs of N—H...N hydrogen‐bonding interactions link the N—H groups of the ammine ligands to the N atoms of cyanide ligands.     

The Copper(II)‐Catalyzed Oxidation of Glutathione

The kinetics and mechanisms of the copper(II)‐catalyzed GSH (glutathione) oxidation are examined in the light of its biological importance and in the use of blood and/or saliva samples for GSH monitoring. The rates of the free thiol consumption were measured spectrophotometrically by reaction with DTNB (5,5′‐dithiobis‐(2‐nitrobenzoic acid)), showing that GSH is not auto‐oxidized by oxygen in the absence of a catalyst. In the presence of Cu²⁺, reactions with two timescales were observed. The first step (short timescale) involves the fast formation of a copper–glutathione complex by the cysteine thiol. The second step (longer timescale) is the overall oxidation of GSH to GSSG (glutathione disulfide) catalyzed by copper(II). When the initial concentrations of GSH are at least threefold in excess of Cu²⁺, the rate law is deduced to be ?d[thiol]/dt=k[copper–glutathione complex][O₂]^0.5[H₂O₂]^?0.5. The 0.5^th reaction order with respect to O₂ reveals a pre‐equilibrium prior to the rate‐determining step of the GSSG formation. In contrast to [Cu²⁺] and [O₂], the rate of the reactions decreases with increasing concentrations of GSH. This inverse relationship is proposed to be a result of the competing formation of an inactive form of the copper–glutathione complex (binding to glutamic and/or glycine moieties).     

Histidine‐Rich Oligopeptides To Lessen Copper‐Mediated Amyloid‐β Toxicity

Brain copper imbalance plays an important role in amyloid‐β aggregation, tau hyperphosphorylation, and neurotoxicity observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, the administration of biocompatible metal‐binding agents may offer a potential therapeutic solution to target mislocalized copper ions and restore metallostasis. Histidine‐containing peptides and proteins are excellent metal binders and are found in many natural systems. The design of short peptides showing optimal binding properties represents a promising approach to capture and redistribute mislocalized metal ions, mainly due to their biocompatibility, ease of synthesis, and the possibility of fine‐tuning their metal‐binding affinities in order to suppress unwanted competitive binding with copper‐containing proteins. In the present study, three peptides, namely HWH , HK^CH , and HAH , have been designed with the objective of reducing copper toxicity in AD. These tripeptides form highly stable albumin‐like complexes, showing higher affinity for Cu^II than that of Aβ(1‐40). Furthermore, HWH , HK^CH , and HAH act as very efficient inhibitors of copper‐mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and prevent the copper‐induced overproduction of toxic oligomers in the initial steps of amyloid aggregation in the presence of Cu^II ions. These tripeptides, and more generally small peptides including the sequence His‐Xaa‐His at the N‐terminus, may therefore be considered as promising motifs for the future development of new and efficient anti‐Alzheimer drugs.