Selection of alloys and their influence on the operational characteristics of a two-stage metal hydride heat transformer

A heat transformer can upgrade heat to a higher temperature. A two-stage heat transformer has a greater temperature upgrading potential than a single-stage heat transformer, e.g. heat can be upgraded from a level of about 130–140°C to temperatures of about 200°C. A practical method to select suitable hydrides to be used in a two-stage heat transformer is presented. The example discussed shows that the selected alloys result in a reasonable operation of the two-stage heat transformer. Three different evaluation criteria viz. coefficient of performance, alloy output and temperature output, are introduced to compare the operational characteristics of heat transformers with different alloys; the influence of some metal hydride properties on the operational characteristics is also discussed.     

Flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R21 in microchannel heat sink

Boiling heat transfer in a refrigerant R 21 flow in a microchannel heat sink is studied. A stainless steel heat sink with a length of 120 mm contains ten microchannels with a size of 640×2050 μm at cross-section with a wall roughness of 10 μm. The local heat-transfer coefficient distribution along the heat sink length is obtained. The ranges of parameters are: mass flow from 68 to 172 kg/m²s, heat fluxes from 16 to 152 kW/m², and vapor quality from 0 to 1. The maximum values of the heat transfer coefficient are observed at the inlet of microchannels. The heat transfer coefficients decrease substantially along the length of channels under high heat flux conditions and, on the contrary, change insignificantly under low heat flux condition. A comparison with the well-known models of flow boiling heat transfer is performed and the range of applicability is defined.     

Heat capacities of solid polymers

The heat capacity of a solid polymer is governed by the manner in which the internal energy is distributed over the various degrees of freedom. If the internal energy manifests itself in harmonic oscillatory motions, the heat capacity is the sum of contributions of the normal modes of motion. In practice, full frequency data are not generally available for polymers. This paper proposes an empirical method for determining the heat capacities of linear high polymers by the addition of contributions from different chain segments. A survey of heat capacity data for 30 linear high polymers and several copolymer systems has revealed that additivity is usually valid for a temperature range from about 60°K to the glass-transition temperature. A table of heat capacity contributions of a number of polymer constituents is derived which permits the calculation of unknown heat capacities to an accuracy of ±5% or better. In addition, δC_p data for the increase of the heat capacity at the glass-transition temperature were found to agree with the rule of constant heat capacity increase per mole of “bead” proposed 8 years ago.     

Estimation of the required collector area of a solar assisted heat pump

The solar assisted heat pump represents a method of increasing the heat pump COP by transferring solar radiation heat to the heat pump evaporator. In this paper a method of calculating the minimum design limit for the collector area based on the second law efficiency is introduced by using a set of experimental data on a certain design of a solar assisted heat pump system during winter time. A comparative study is made between the actual and ideal conditions, and a minimum required area of the collector is suggested.     

Evaporative Heat Transfer Characteristics of R404a and R134a under Varied Heat Flux Conditions

The two-phase heat transfer coefficients of R404A and R134a in a smooth tube of 7.49-mm inner diameter were experimentally investigated at low heat and mass flux conditions. The test section is a 10-m-long counter-flow horizontal double-tube heat exchanger with refrigerant flow inside the tube and hot fluid in the annulus. The heat transfer coefficients along the length of the test section were measured experimentally under varied heat flux conditions between 4 and 18 kW m^?2 and mass flux ranging between 57 and 102 kg m^?2 s^?1 (2.5 to 4.5 g s^?1) for saturation temperatures of ?10°C, ?5°C, and 0°C. The saturation temperatures correspond to pressures of 4.4, 5.2, and 6.1 bar for R404A and 2.0, 2.4, and 3.0 bar for R134a, respectively. The results showed that under the tested conditions, the contribution of the nucleate boiling mechanism is predominant in the heat transfer coefficient throughout the flow boiling process. The Kattan–Thome–Favrat flow pattern maps confirm the occurrence of stratified and stratified-wavy flow patterns for all of the tested conditions. The average heat transfer coefficient of R404A is estimated to be 26 to 30% higher than that of R134a for the same saturation temperature.     

Numerical and Experimental Comparative Study on Nanofluids Flow and Heat Transfer in a Ribbed Triangular Duct

Numerical and experimental investigation is carried out to study the effect of combined vortex generator and nanofluids on turbulent heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics in an equilateral triangular duct. A triangular duct provides a lower heat transfer rate and lower pressure drop compared to other duct configurations. The improvement of heat transfer of these ducts increases their importance for providing higher heat transfer and lower pressure drop. Two different types of nanoparticles, namely Al₂O₃ and SiO₂, suspended in distilled water with two particle concentrations are successfully prepared and experimentally tested. The numerical and experimental results show dramatic heat transfer enhancement by using a vortex generator and nanofluids, simultaneously accomplished with a moderate increase in the friction factor. A low deviation has been seen between the present numerical and experimental results.     

Current progress on heat conduction in one-dimensional gas channels

We give a brief review of the past development of model studies on one-dimensional heat conduction. Particularly, we describe recent achievements on the study of heat conduction in one-dimensional gas models including the hard-point gas model and billiard gas channel. For a one-dimensional gas of elastically colliding particles of unequal masses, heat conduction is anomalous due to momentum conservation, and the divergence exponent of heat conductivity is estimated as α≈0.33 in k ∼ L ^α . Moreover, in billiard gas models, it is found that exponent instability is not necessary for normal heat conduction. The connection between heat conductivity and diffusion is investigated. Some new progress is reported. A recently proposed model with a quantized degree of freedom to study the heat transport in quasi-one dimensional systems is illustrated in which three distinct temperature regimes of heat conductivity are manifested. The establishment of local thermal equilibrium (LTE) in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems is also discussed. Finally, we give a summary with an outlook for further study about the problem of heat conduction.     

Calibration of a Gardon Sensor in a High-Temperature High Heat Flux Stagnation Facility

A calibration methodology developed for custom-made heat flux sensors used for the investigation of hydrothermal spallation drilling is presented. An air jet stagnation convection calibration system allowing independent control of jet velocity and temperature, cooling water flow and temperature, stand off distance, and nozzle diameter was built. A thermopile device was used as reference heat flux sensor. Air jets with velocities up to 400 m/s, exit temperatures of 760°C, and heat fluxes up to 0.6 MW/m² can be reached. The standard deviation of a reference heat flux measurement is below 2%, and overall uncertainty achieved is less than 5.5%.     

Flow condensing heat transfer of R410A,R22, and R32 inside a micro-fin tube

An experimental study of condensation heat transfer characteristics of flow inside horizontal micro-fin tubes is carried out using R410A, R22, and R32 as the test fluids. This study especially focuses on the influence of heat transfer area upon the condensation heat transfer coefficients. The test sections were made of double tubes using the counter-flow type; the refrigerants condensation inside the test tube enabled heat to exchange with cooling water that flows from the annular side. The saturation temperature and pressure of the refrigerants were measured at the inlet and outlet of the test sections to defined state of refrigerants, and the surface temperatures of the tube were measured. A differential pressure transducer directly measured the pressure drops in the test section. The heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops were calculated using the experimental data. The condensation heat transfer coefficient was measured at the saturation temperature of 48°C with mass fluxes of 50–380 kg/(m²s) and heat fluxes of 3–12 kW/m². The values of experimental heat transfer coefficient results are compared with the predicted values from the existing correlations in the literature, and a new condensation heat transfer coefficient correlation is proposed.     

Thermographic analysis of flow distribution in compact heat exchangers for a Formula 1 car

A non-intrusive approach is investigated to calculate the internal flow distribution in heat exchangers. In particular, the liquid flow rate can be determined in each tube of an air–liquid finned-tube heat exchanger. A purposely designed test bench impresses a sudden change of temperature of the liquid flowing through the heat exchanger. The thermal transient that follows is monitored by a thermographic camera. This measures the rise of surface temperature along each tube. The temperature evolution pattern is then correlated to the flow rate in the tube by simple mathematical processing. The heat exchanger is tested in still air. Modification is not required. The approach is tested on heat exchangers for a F1 race car, with encouraging results.     

New compression heat pump media for medium and high temperature application

The economy and operability of compression heat pump systems is to a great extent influenced by the working fluid. However, the choice of the appropriate medium for a given heat pump application is not straight forward, since a great number of physical and non-physical properties of the presumptive working fluids have to be accounted for.A systematic method of looking for the best medium has been developed. With the help of a commercial flowsheet program a simulation routine of the heat pump cycle has been established. This routine was used to screen all substances in the attached data bank in respect to their applicability as working media. In all, 940 substances have been investigated. From these substances 42 show favourable properties as working fluids for the application in three cases, namely with a temperature of the heat source of 2°C and of the heat sink of 70°C respectively, 60°C source temperature and 120°C at the heat sink and of 90°C source temperature and 150°C at the heat sink.A further investigation of these 42 substances with respect to toxicity and stability left four of them as the ultimate proposal for operable compression heat pump fluids.Besides the actual proposal of new media, the investigation produces a much better understanding of the influence of physical properties on the heat pump performance. From the great number of data, a reliable prediction of the applicability of a given substance as a working fluid, based on the critical data, was deduced.     

Development and Analysis of the Novel Hybridization of a Single-Flash Geothermal Power Plant with Biomass Driven sCO2-Steam Rankine Combined Cycle

This study investigates the hybridization scenario of a single-flash geothermal power plant with a biomass-driven sCO₂-steam Rankine combined cycle, where a solid local biomass source, olive residue, is used as a fuel. The hybrid power plant is modeled using the simulation software EBSILON^®Professional. A topping sCO₂ cycle is chosen due to its potential for flexible electricity generation. A synergy between the topping sCO₂ and bottoming steam Rankine cycles is achieved by a good temperature match between the coupling heat exchanger, where the waste heat from the topping cycle is utilized in the bottoming cycle. The high-temperature heat addition problem, common in sCO₂ cycles, is also eliminated by utilizing the heat in the flue gas in the bottoming cycle. Combined cycle thermal efficiency and a biomass-to-electricity conversion efficiency of 24.9% and 22.4% are achieved, respectively. The corresponding fuel consumption of the hybridized plant is found to be 2.2 kg/s.     

Experimental results of a zeolite-water heat pump installed in a slaughter house

A two-adsorber zeolite-water heat pump has been built and tested in a slaughter house to provide hot water for washing purposes. Two types of cycles have been operated: long period (160 min) and short period (60 min) cycles. Analysis of the results shows the importance of the heat recovery strategy on the output heat rate of the heat pump. It appears that in this heat pump, the adsorber heat transfer coefficient is very low (6 W/m²°C) and the boiler has been undersized (a 400 kW boiler would have been better adapted than the 230 kW existing boiler). No major problems due to the zeolite-water heat pump were encountered, and the COA is satisfactory (1.45, corresponding to an exergetic efficiency equal to 0.54).     

回热器对R404A制冷系统性能影响的实验研究

进行了回热器对R404A制冷剂性能影响的实验研究,得出了有无回热器工况下运行时机组的性能参数,并对它们进行了比较和分析。得到的结论是:回热器对R404A制冷系统性能在低温工况下是有利的;回热器虽然会使制冷系统的制冷量和COP增加,但都会引起压缩机排气温度升高,某些工况最高排气温度达到了162.8℃,会影响压缩机的正常运行。     

Optimal configuration of a class of endoreversible heat engines for maximum efficiency with radiative heat transfer law

Optimal configuration of a class of endoreversible heat engines with fixed duration, input energy and radiative heat transfer law (q ∝ Δ(T ⁴)) is determined. The optimal cycle that maximizes the efficiency of the heat engine is obtained by using optimal-control theory, and the differential equations are solved by the Taylor series expansion. It is shown that the optimal cycle has eight branches including two isothermal branches, four maximum-efficiency branches, and two adiabatic branches. The interval of each branch is obtained, as well as the solutions of the temperatures of the heat reservoirs and the working fluid. A numerical example is given. The obtained results are compared with those obtained with the Newton’s heat transfer law for the maximum efficiency objective, those with linear phenomenological heat transfer law for the maximum efficiency objective, and those with radiative heat transfer law for the maximum power output objective.     

螺旋折流片换热器壳侧传热与流动的数值模拟

提出了一种强化管壳式换热器壳侧传热的螺旋折流片式换热器新方案,该方案在部分管子上套上螺旋折流片,不仅强化传热,而且对相邻管子形成支撑;利用FLUENT流体计算软件对同心套管螺旋折流片式换热段的壳侧流场、温度场进行了数值模拟,并讨论了螺旋角对其强化传热和阻力性能的影响。结果显示螺旋折流片诱导的涡旋流动对于减薄边界层,促进近壁流体与主流区流体的动量和质量交换进而强化传热有明显的作用,传热系数可比光管提高约40％-100％,但其流动阻力也将增大。     

The low temperature specific heat of a single crystal of La<Subscript>2</Subscript>CuO<Subscript>4+δ</Subscript> in magetic fields of 0, 2 and 4 Tesla

A single crystal of La₂CuO₄ was made superconducting after treatment in a high pressure oxygen furnace. Measurements are presented of the low temperature heat capacity of the insulating crystal in zero field between 1K and 3K, and of the superconducting crystal in fields of 0, 2 and 4 Tesla applied parallel to the ab plane between 0.2K and 3K. A linear heat capacity contribution is observed for the crystal in both the insulating and superconducting states. This linear heat capacity contribution is larger in the superconducting state and is insensitive to the applied magnetic field.     

Entropy generation and MHD natural convection of a nanofluid in an inclined square porous cavity: Effects of a heat sink and source size and location

The effects of a heat sink and the source size and location on the entropy generation, MHD natural convection flow and heat transfer in an inclined porous enclosure filled with a Cu-water nanofluid are investigated numerically. A uniform heat source is located in a part of the bottom wall, and a part of the upper wall of the enclosure is maintained at a cooled temperature, while the remaining parts of these two walls are thermally insulated. Both the left and right walls of the enclosure are considered to be adiabatic. The thermal conductivity and the dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid are represented by different verified experimental correlations that are suitable for each type of nanoparticle. The finite difference methodology is used to solve the dimensionless partial differential equations governing the problem. A comparison with previously published works is performed, and the results show a very good agreement. The results indicate that the Nusselt number decreases via increasing the nanofluid volume fraction as well as the Hartmann number. The best location and size of the heat sink and the heat source considering the thermal performance criteria and magnetic effects are found to be D?=?0.7 and B?=?0.2. The entropy generation, thermal performance criteria and the natural heat transfer of the nanofluid for different sizes and locations of the heat sink and source and for various volume fractions of nanoparticles are also investigated and discussed.     

Thermal control of electronic equipment by heat pipes

In the frame of the BRITE-EURAM european programme (KHIEPCOOL project), a literature survey on the main heat pipe and micro heat pipe technologies developed for thermal control of electronic equipment has been carried out. The conventional heat pipes are cylindrical, flat or bellow tubes, using wicks or axial grooves as capillary structures. In the field of micro heat pipes, three and four corner tubes have been developed. The pipes are mounted on single chips, in-line chip arrays or integrated into the component interconnection substrate. The best performances were achieved with Plesch's axially grooved flat miniature heat pipe [1], which is able to transfer a heat flux of about 60 W·cm⁻². Theoretical models have shown that the performance of micro heat pipe arrays increase with increasing tube diameter, decreasing tube length and increasing heat pipe density. The heat pipe technologies are classified and compared according to their geometry and location in the system. A list of about 150 references, classified according to their subjects, is presented.