Crystallization, transformation and microstructures of polymorphic fats in colloidal dispersion states

This article reviews new information about polymorphic structures, kinetic and microscopic properties of fat crystals in colloidal dispersion states such as aggregates (spherulite), oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion. The kinetic processes of fat crystallization under external factors such as different cooling rates, shear and ultrasound irradiation are reviewed. Microstructures of fats revealed by synchrotron radiation microbeam X-ray diffraction techniques in bulk and emulsion states are also reviewed for the first time.     

Retardation of crystallization-induced destabilization of PMF-in-water emulsion with emulsifier additives

An oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion, in which the oil phase is semi-solid fat, is easily destabilized when stored below the crystallization temperature of the oil phase. Such destabilization, characterized by loss of fluidity at chilled temperature and oil-water separation after re-heating, is caused by inter-droplet bridging of fat crystals protruding out of the emulsion droplets. In the present study, we found that the simultaneous use of additives of highly hydrophobic sucrose oligoester (SOE; P-170) and highly hydrophilic SOE (P-1670) containing palmitic acid moiety remarkably retarded the crystallization-induced destabilization of the O/W emulsion that contains palm-mid-fraction (PMF) as the oil phase. Without the additives, destabilization occurred when the emulsion was cooled from 60 to 0 degrees C and kept at 0 degrees C for 1 day. Microscopic observation revealed that destabilization was caused by coalescence of the oil droplets, which was triggered by the growth of needle-shaped PMF crystals protruding out of the emulsion membranes. However, the addition of P-170 to PMF increased the crystallization temperature of PMF and at the same time retarded the destabilization. Furthermore, the simultaneous addition of P-170 and P-1670 retarded the crystallization-induced destabilization even more. Optical observation, DSC, and synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction measurements indicated that the P-170 additive enhanced interfacial heterogeneous crystallization to form tiny PMF crystals in the droplets, and that the P-1670 additive retarded morphological change of the PMF crystals into long needle shapes in association with polymorphic transformation from alpha to beta'.     

Influence of synthetic perfumes on stability of O/W emulsion in sodium dodecyl sulfate–n-dodecane–water ternary systems

Influence of synthetic perfumes having diverse chemical structures such as eugenol, linalool, benzyl acetate, α-ionone, α-hexylcinnamaldehyde, and d-limonene on stability of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion composed of sodium dodecyl sulfate, n-dodecane, and water is investigated. Turbidity measurements of the O/W emulsion indicate that the emulsion is stabilized by adding the synthetic perfume, except for d-limonene, and that this tendency is remarkable in adding eugenol. The addition of the perfume, especially eugenol, shrinks oil droplets in the O/W emulsion, which inhibits coagulation and/or creaming of oil droplets. When adding eugenol, moreover, ζ-potential of oil droplets increases negatively, and viscosity of the external water phase of the emulsion rises drastically. The increment in ζ-potential and viscosity by the addition of eugenol also prevents oil droplets from coagulation and/or creaming and makes the O/W emulsion still more stable.     

Interface composition of multiple emulsions: rheology as a probe

We have investigated the dynamic rheological properties of concentrated multiple emulsions to characterize their amphiphile composition at interfaces. Multiple emulsions (W1/O/W2) consist of water droplets (W1) dispersed into oil globules (O), which are redispersed in an external aqueous phase (W2). A small-molecule surfactant and an amphiphilic polymer were used to stabilize the inverse emulsion (W1 in oil globules) and the inverse emulsion (oil globules in W2), respectively. Rheological and interfacial tension measurements show that the polymeric surfactant adsorbed at the globule interface does not migrate to the droplet interfaces through the oil phase. This explains, at least partly, the stability improvement of multiple emulsions as polymeric surfactants are used instead of small-molecule surfactants.     

Polyols,High Pressure,and Refractive Indices Equalization for Improved Stability of W/O Emulsions for Food Applications

Mixtures of polyols (glycerol, propylene glycol, glucose) and water were emulsified in oil (isopropyl myristate (IPM), medium chain triglycerides (MCT), long chain triglycerides (LCT), and d-limonene) under elevated pressures and homogenization, in the presence of polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), glycerol monooleate (GMO), and their mixture as emulsifiers to form water-in-oil emulsions. High pressures was applied to: a) the emulsion, b) the aqueous phase and c) the oil phase in the presence of the emulsifiers (PGPR and GMO). Under optimal pressure (2000 atms) applied to the ready-made emulsion or to the aqueous phase prior to its emulsification, and with optimal composition (30wt% polyol in the aqueous phase and MCT as the oil phase), the aqueous droplets were stable for months and submicron in size (0.1 μm). Moreover, due to equalization of the oil and the aqueous phases refractive indices, the emulsions were almost transparent. Pressure and polyols have synergistic effects on the emulsions stability. During preparation, surface tensions and interfacial tensions were dramatically reduced until an optimal water/polyols ratio was achieved, which allows rupturing of the droplets to submicronal size (0.1 μm) without recoalescence and fast diffusion to the interface. These unique W/O emulsions are suitable for preparing W/O/W double emulsions for sustained release of active materials for food applications.     

Ethanol-in-oil emulsion (E/O) stabilized by polyglycerol polyricinoleate: A potential delivery system for ethanolic extract

This study evaluated how variations in polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) concentration and ethanol dispersed phase content affect the stability of ethanol-in-oil (E/O) emulsions. Results indicate that the stable 10?wt% E/O emulsions can be produced using 2?wt% PGPR. Increasing the ethanol dispersed phased content at constant PGPR concentration caused instability in emulsion. These emulsions remained stable to droplet flocculation and coalescence in the presence of Centella asiatica ethanol extract. PGPR does not greatly decrease the interfacial tension of the ethanol–oil interface. However, it adsorbed at the interface and stabilized the ethanol droplets in the emulsion via steric mechanism.     

Molecular Dynamics Simulation for the Demulsification of O/W Emulsion under Pulsed Electric Field

A bidirectional pulsed electric field (BPEF) method is considered a simple and novel technique to demulsify O/W emulsions. In this paper, molecular dynamics simulation was used to investigate the transformation and aggregation behavior of oil droplets in O/W emulsion under BPEF. Then, the effect of surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS) on the demulsification of O/W emulsion was investigated. The simulation results showed that the oil droplets transformed and moved along the direction of the electric field. SDS molecules can shorten the aggregation time of oil droplets in O/W emulsion. The electrostatic potential distribution on the surface of the oil droplet, the elongation length of the oil droplets, and the mean square displacement (MSD) of SDS and asphaltene molecules under an electric field were calculated to explain the aggregation of oil droplets under the simulated pulsed electric field. The simulation also showed that the two oil droplets with opposite charges have no obvious effect on the aggregation of the oil droplets. However, van der Waals interactions between oil droplets was the main factor in the aggregation.     

Water mass transfer in W/O emulsions

Water transportation through the oil phase in W/O emulsions and in W1/O/W2 systems (W/O emulsion in contact with water) was examined. Substance diffusion through interfaces led to interface instability and spontaneous emulsification which caused nanodispersion formation. The photomicrographs of Pt/C replicas of emulsions showed the presence in the continuous oil phase a lot of nanodispersion droplets with a diameter in the range 17-25 nm. Diffusion coefficient (D) of water calculated on the base of Lifshiz-Slezov-Wagner (LSW) equation was about 15 times lower than the coefficients of molecular diffusion. Since such emulsions were extremely unstable toward coalescence, the growth of water droplets took place through as Ostwald ripening as coalescence. In three-phase W1/O/W2 systems diffusion of water, Rhodamine C, and ethanol was studied. D calculated on the base of the equation of nonstationary diffusion were approximately 1000 times lower than molecular ones. It was assumed, that nanodispersion droplets were more likely water carriers in investigated W/O emulsions stabilized by sorbitan monooleate.     

Preparation characteristics of water-in-oil-in-water multiple emulsions using microchannel emulsification

Microchannel (MC) emulsification is a novel technique for preparing monodispersed emulsions. This study demonstrates preparing water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions using MC emulsification. The W/O/W emulsions were prepared by a two-step emulsification process employing MC emulsification as the second step. We investigated the behavior of internal water droplets penetrating the MCs. Using decane, ethyl oleate, and medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) as oil phases, we observed successful MC emulsification and prepared monodispersed oil droplets that contained small water droplets. MC emulsification was possible using triolein as the oil phase, but polydispersed oil droplets were formed from some of the channels. No leakage of the internal water phase was observed during the MC emulsification process. The internal water droplets penetrated the MC without disruption, even though the internal water droplets were larger than the resulting W/O/W emulsion droplets. The W/O/W emulsion entrapment yield was measured fluorometrically and found to be 91%. The mild action of droplet formation based on spontaneous transformation led to a high entrapment yield during MC emulsification.     

Mixed O/W emulsions stabilized by solid particles: A model system for controlled mass transfer triggered by surfactant addition

This article deals with a model mixed oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion system developed to study the effect of surfactants on mass transfer between dispersed oil droplets of different composition. In this purpose, our goal was to formulate O/W emulsions without any surface active agents as stabilizer, which was achieved by replacing surfactants by a mixture of hydrophilic/hydrophobic silica particles. Then, to study the specific role of surfactants in the oil transfer process, different types and concentrations of surfactants were added to the mixed emulsion after its preparation. In such a way, the same original emulsion can be used for all experiments and the influence of various surface active molecules on the oil transfer mechanism can be directly studied. The model mixed emulsion used consists of a mixture of hexadecane-in-water and tetradecane-in-water emulsions. The transfer between tetradecane and hexadecane droplets was monitored by using differential scanning calorimetry, which allows the detection of freezing and melting signals characteristic of the composition of the dispersed oil droplets. The results obtained showed that it is possible to trigger the transfer of tetradecane towards hexadecane droplets by adding surfactants at concentrations above their critical micellar concentration, measured in presence of solid particles, through micellar transport mechanism.     

Spreading of partially crystallized oil droplets on an air/water interface

The influence of crystalline fat on the amount and rate of oil spreading out of emulsion droplets onto either a clean or a protein-covered air/water interface was measured for β-lactoglobulin stabilized emulsions prepared with either anhydrous milk fat or a blend of hydrogenated palm fat and sunflower oil. At a clean interface, liquid oil present in the emulsion droplets was observed to completely spread out of the droplets unimpeded by the presence of a fat crystal network. Further, the presence of a fat crystal network in the emulsion droplets had no effect on the rate of oil spreading out of the droplets. At a protein-covered interface, the spreading behavior of emulsion droplets containing crystalline fat was evaluated in terms of the value of the surface pressure (Π_AW) at the point of spreading; Π_AW at spreading was unaffected by the presence of crystalline fat. We conclude it is unlikely that the role of crystalline fat in stabilizing aerated emulsions such as whipped cream is to reduce oil spreading at the air/water interface. However, the temperature of the system did have an effect: spontaneous spreading of emulsion droplets at clean air/water interfaces occurred for systems measured at 5 °C, but not for those measured at 22 or 37 °C. Thus, temperature may play a more important role in the whipping process than commonly thought: the entering and spreading of emulsion droplets was favored at lower temperatures because the surface pressure exerted by protein adsorbed at the air/water interface was reduced. This effect may facilitate the whipping process.     

Fat crystals: A tool to inhibit molecular transport in W/O/W double emulsions

Water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) double emulsions are a promising technology for encapsulation applications of water soluble compounds with respect to functional food systems. Yet molecular transport through the oil phase is a well-known problem for liquid oil-based double emulsions. The influence of network crystallization in the oil phase of W/O/W globules was evaluated by NMR and laser light scattering experiments on both a liquid oil-based double emulsion and a solid fat-based double emulsion. Water transport was assessed by low-resolution NMR diffusometry and by an osmotically induced swelling or shrinking experiment, whereas manganese ion permeation was followed by means of T₂-relaxometry. The solid fat-based W/O/W globules contained a crystal network with about 80% solid fat. This W/O/W emulsion showed a reduced molecular water exchange and a slower manganese ion influx in the considered time frame, whereas its globule size remained stable under the applied osmotic gradients. The reduced permeability of the oil phase is assumed to be caused by the increased tortuosity of the diffusive path imposed by the crystal network. This solid network also provided mechanical strength to the W/O/W globules to counteract the applied osmotic forces.     

Phase inversion of the Pickering emulsions stabilized by plate-shaped clay particles

We investigated the phase inversion of Pickering emulsions stabilized by plate-shaped clay particles. Addition of water induced a phase inversion from a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion to an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion when the amount of the oil phase exceeded a limiting amount of oil absorption to solid particles. On the other hand, a phase inversion from a powdery state to an O/W emulsion state through an oil-separated state is observed when the amount of an oil phase is less than the limiting amount of the oil absorption. Interestingly, the oil separated is re-dispersed as emulsion droplets into the O/W emulsion phase. This type of phase inversion, which is a feature of the Pickering emulsions stabilized by the clay particles, is caused by a change in the aggregate structures of particles.     

W/O Emulsion Destabilization and Release of a Polysaccharide Entrapped in the Droplets

This study was conducted as part of European project VEGEPHY to develop a product for the crop protection purposes. It concerns first the destabilization of a W/O emulsion containing water droplets in which the polysaccharide carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is trapped, the droplets being dispersed in a vegetable oil made of rapeseed methyl ester. Polyglycerolpolyricinoleate (PGPR) is used as surfactant and glycerol is added to enhance the dispersion of the CMC. The second part is dealing with the study of the release and dilution of the CMC obtained by dilution of the destabilized emulsion in water in order to obtain the required final amount of CMC for practical purposes. The destabilization of the emulsion by the demulsifier (cynthiorex PMH 1125) has been followed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) that permits by studying the freezing of the dispersed water to detect the presence of bulk water. The release and dilution in water of the CMC versus time was followed and quantified by measuring the conductivity of the sample. The release kinetic was modeled using a first-order empirical model. The results showed that the release process of the W/O emulsion depends on the concentration of the demulsifier, on the stirring rate, and on the temperature. The optimum amount of the non-ionic surfactant was found to be 10% and the full release of the CMC has been obtained in 600 seconds.     

Stabilization of Water‐Soluble Antioxidant in Water‐in‐Oil‐in‐Water Double Emulsions

Abstract

In this study, we are introducing a method that can effectively stabilize antioxidants in water‐in‐oil‐in‐water (W/O/W) double emulsions. Preliminarily, stable W/O/W double emulsions were produced by manipulating the characteristics of internal aqueous phase via two‐stage emulsification, resulting consequently in the formation of fine internal water droplets in the dispersed oil droplets. From conductivity measurements that can determine the elution amount of internal aqueous phase, it was confirmed that the double emulsion stability could be improved by treating the internal aqueous phase with a hydroxypropyl‐beta‐cyclodextrin. In this study, kojic acid, 5‐hydroxy‐2‐(hydroxymethyl)‐4‐pyrone was selected as a model antioxidant. The stabilization of kojic acid was attempted by locating it in the internal water droplets of the stable W/O/W double emulsions. The stability of kojic acid in the double emulsion system could be maintained at 90% for 10 weeks at high temperature. We believe that these stable W/O/W double emulsions could be used meaningfully as a carrier for many unstable antioxidants.     

Preparation of a stable double emulsion (W1/O/W2): role of the interfacial films on the stability of the system

This paper presents new protocols enabling preparation of W1/O/W2 double emulsions: one, using soybean oil as the O phase, that yields edible emulsions with industrial applications, and a second that yields emulsions with a previously unattainable concentration 15% (w/w) of surfactants in the external phase (the 15% target was chosen to meet the typical industry standard). Preparation of a stable W1/O emulsion was found to be critical for the stability of the system as a whole. Of the various low HLB primary surfactants tested, only cethyl dimethicone copolyol (Abil EM90), A-B-A block copolymer (Arlacel P135), and polyglycerol ester of ricinoleic acid (Grinstead PGR-90) yielded a stable W/O emulsion. Investigation of the surface properties of those surfactants using the monolayer technique found two significant similarities: (1) stable, compressible, and reversibly expandable monolayers; and (2) high elasticity and surface potential. The high degree of elasticity of the interfacial film between W1 and O makes it highly resilient under stress; its failure to break contributes to the stability of the emulsion. The high surface potential values observed suggest that the surfactant molecules lie flat at the O/W interfaces. In particular, in the case of PGR-90, the hydroxyl (-OH) groups on the fatty acid chains serve as anchors at the O/W interfaces and are responsible for the high surface potential. The long-term stability of the double emulsion requires a balance between the Laplace and osmotic pressures (between W1 droplets in O and between W1 droplets and the external aqueous phase W2). The presence of a thickener in the outer phase is necessary in order to reach a viscosity ratio (preferably approximately 1) between the W1/O and W2 phases, allowing dispersion of the viscous primary emulsion into the W2 aqueous phase. The thickener, which also serves as a dispersant and consequently prevents phase separation due to its thixotropic properties, must be compatible with the surfactants. Finally, the interactions between the low and high HLB emulsifiers at the O/W2 interface should not destabilize the films. It was observed that such destructive interaction for the system could be prevented by the use of two high HLB surfactants in the outer aqueous phase: an amphoteric surfactant, Betaine, and an anionic surfactant, sodium lauryl ether sulfate. The combination of such pairs of surfactants was found to contribute to the films' stability.     

Several surfaces with special wettability: Influence on spreading and motion of W/O emulsion droplets

Physical and chemical modifications were made on the surface of the aluminum sheet to change the surface properties and superhydrophobic–hydrophilic wettability gradient surface was made on the perspex surface by using microstructure-pattering technique and self-assembled-monolayer method. By using high-speed video camera system and optical tensiometer, this paper discusses the influence of special surfaces with different wettability on spreading and motion of water, oil, and W/O emulsion droplets both experimentally and theoretically. In addition, the paper also discusses the influence of the superhydrophobic–hydrophilic wettability gradient on fluidity of W/O emulsion droplets and the coalescence process of droplets. The results showed that the contact angle of W/O emulsion droplets on the modified surfaces was related to the water and oil distribution at the three-phase line. On the wettability gradient surface, the droplet moved spontaneously when the droplet was located at the junction of the gradient. A quasi-steady theoretical model was used to analyze the driving and resistant forces acting on a droplet to improve the understanding of the self-transport behavior of the droplets.     

Characterization of different double-emulsion formulations based on food-grade emulsifiers and stabilizers

This study focused on the preparation and characterization of water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2)-type double emulsions designed by food-grade emulsifiers and stabilizers. The primary objective of this study was to compare different emulsion formulations in terms of droplet size, rheology, and stability and to reduce the amount of polyglycerol poliricinoleate (PGPR). To achieve these goals, PGPR and a PGPR–lecithin blend were utilized in the formation of the primary phase (W1/O), while varying concentrations of guar gum (GG) and gum tragacanth (GT) incorporated in the secondary water phase (W2). Shear thinning behavior was observed for all emulsion formulations. Sauter mean diameters of the emulsions prepared with PGPR as a hydrophobic emulsifier ranged between 30?µm and 75?µm, while those prepared with the PGPR–lecithin blend varied between 25?µm and 85?µm based on the first day’s measurements. In emulsions with the PGPR–lecithin blend, the smallest droplet size was obtained when the GG–GT blend was incorporated in the external aqueous phase. Moreover, GG–GT blends had high consistency coefficients and high apparent viscosity values. It was also observed that PGPR–lecithin containing emulsions were more stable.     

A review of: “Nineteenth Century Attitudes: Men of Science (Chemists and Chemistry Series,Vol. 13)”. Sydney Ross. Kluwer Academic Publishers; Dordrecht, 1991. pp. xi+235. $69.00.

Abstract

The potential of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes as water‐in‐oil (W/O) emulsification devices was investigated to obtain uniformly sized droplets and to convert them into microcapsules and polymer particles via subsequent treatments. Uniform W/O emulsion droplets have not been achieved using glass membranes unless the membrane was rendered hydrophobic by treatment with silanes. If a PTFE membrane is capable of providing uniform droplets for a W/O emulsion, a coordinated membrane emulsification system can be established since glass membranes have been so successful for O/W (oil‐in‐water) emulsification. In order to examine the feasibility of PTFE membrane emulsification, O/W and W/O emulsion characteristics prepared using PTFE membranes were compared with those prepared by the conventional SPG (Shirasu porous glass) membrane emulsification method. A 3 wt.% sodium chloride solution was dispersed in kerosene using a low HLB surfactant. Effects of the membrane pore size, permeation pressure, and the type of emulsifiers and concentration on the droplet size and on the size distribution (CV, coefficient of variation) were investigated. The CV of the droplets was fairly low, and the average droplet size was correlated with the critical permeation pressure of the dispersed phase, revealing that the PTFE membrane could be used as a one‐pass membrane emulsification device. Low CV values were maintained with a Span 85 (HLB = 1.8) concentration, 0.2–5.0 wt.% and a range of HLB from 1.8–5.0. For a brief demonstration of practical applications, nylon‐6,10 microcapsules prepared by interfacial polycondensation and poly(acrylamide) hydrogels from inverse suspension polymerization are illustrated.