Directionally enhanced probe for side‐illumination Tip enhanced spectroscopy

We investigate the high performance of an apertureless near‐field probe consisting of a tapered metal tip with periodic shallow surface grooves. The spontaneous emission of a single emitter near the apex is systematically analyzed for side‐illumination tip enhanced spectroscopy scheme. In contrast to a conventional bare tapered tip, the corrugated probe not only strongly enhances the local excitation field, but also modulates the emission directivity, leading to high collection efficiency and signal‐to‐noise ratio. Specifically, we propose that an asymmetric tip enhanced spectroscopy probe containing two different length nanorods at the apex realizes unidirectional emissions. The radiation pattern is sensitive to the emission wavelengths and the emitter positions, which can increase the signal‐to‐noise ratio through suppression of the undesired signal. The proposed asymmetrical corrugated probe possesses a wide range of potential applications, including increasing the detection efficiency of tip enhanced spectroscopy at the single molecule level. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simulation of a Planar Emissive Probe in a Mid‐Sized Tokamak Plasma

Planar emissive probe is studied for the first time using a massively parallel particle‐in‐cell code BIT1 [22]. The probe is immersed in a plasma similar to edge plasmas of mid‐sized tokamaks. Dependence of the floating potential on electron emission from the probe is studied. With increasing emission the floating potential increases, but then saturates ～2T_e below the actual plasma potential (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

A theory of probes in high-pressure strongly-ionized plasmas

A theory is developed for a probe in a strongly ionized high-pressure plasma. The situation discussed is typical of high-pressure plasmas, where the plasma occupying most of the near-probe layer is in a state of local ionization equilibrium with a common temperature for electrons and heavy particles. The possibility of determining the parameters of the unperturbed plasma by analyzing the probe characteristics on its ion saturation segment, transient segment, and for a floating probe potential is discussed. The calculations are carried out for the example of a strongly ionized xenon plasma at atmospheric pressure. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 67, 16–20 (December 1997)     

The Effect of Rotating Cylindrical Langmuir Probes in Magnetron Plasmas

Using a cylindrical Langmuir probe, the plasma properties (ion density, electron temperature, floating and plasma potentials) in a magnetron sputter source have been investigated, along one particular line‐of‐sight, but for different probe‐orientations with respect to the B‐field. The plasma in the region hosen for observation is haracterised by electrons, which are magnetised (Larmor radius r_le < both the electron mean‐free‐path λ_e, and plasma extension L) and ions, which are not (their Larmor radius r_I > L, λ_I). Through the development of a simple expression for the electron saturation current at different probe angles relative to the local B‐field, it is possible to correct for the diminished electron currents due to their restricted transport across the field. The results indicate that the measured ion density, electron temperature, floating and plasma potentials are unaffected by the probe orientation, however the electron saturation current is attenuated when the probe is aligned along the B‐field. A simple model for the collection of electrons indicates that classical electron diffusion may not operate in the magnetron, with cross‐field electron transport dominated by anomalous, possibly Bohm, diffusion.     

Potential Formation in a Bounded Plasma System which is Terminated by an Electron Emitting Floating Collector Studied by a Particle‐in‐Cell Computer Simulation

Potential formation in one‐dimensional bounded plasma system terminated by a floating, electron emitting collector is studied by particle‐in‐cell (PIC) computer simulation. Attention is focused to the case of rather strong space charge limited emission. Formation of a potential well (virtual cathode) in front of the collector is observed. As emission increases the floating potential of the electrode and the potential of the bottom of the potential well both increase. The floating potential increases faster than the virtual cathode potential and consequently the depth of the potential well in front of the collector increases also. As long as the emission is not to large (up to approximately 40 times the critical emission) the relation between the depth of the potential well and the normalized emission follows a simple logarithmic formula. For larger emissions the depth of the potential well is larger than predicted by the model. It seems that at very large emission the floating potential of the collector might even exceed the zero reference potential of the source electrode. Such phenomenon has been reported by [A. Marek et al. Contrib. Plasma Phys., 48 , 491 (2008)], where it was observed that the floating potential of a strongly emissive probe exceeded the plasma potential determined from the knee of the current‐voltage characteristics when the same probe was used as a Langmuir probe. But before this actually happens the simulation breaks down. When positive ions start to be repelled by the positive collector back towards the source the system becomes unstable so that a steady state can not be reached and no results can be read from the output of the simulations. That electron emission may destabilize the sheath in front of it, was found also in Hall thrusters, see e.g. [Daren Yu et al. Phys. Plasmas, 15 , 104501, 2008] and [F. Taccogna et al Appl. Phys. Lett., 94 , 251502, 2009]. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

甚高频激发的容性耦合Ar+O_2等离子体电负特性研究

利用探针辅助的脉冲激光诱导负离子剥离诊断技术对掺入5%O_2的容性耦合Ar等离子体电负特性进行了诊断研究.首先详细解析了脉冲激光剥离后探针的电信号,分析了探针偏压在低于或高于空间电位下的探针收集信号特征;根据探针偏压与探针收集信号之间的依赖关系,用来描述Ar+O_2等离子体电负特性的等离子体电负度被定义为脉冲激光剥离出的电子电流与偏压高于空间电位的探针收集到的背景电子电流的饱和比值,并对等离子体电负度随放电气压、射频功率以及轴向位置的变化进行了诊断测量.实验结果表明等离子体的电负度随着射频功率的增加而减小、随着放电气压的上升而变大;由于非对称电极的分布特性,在轴向方向上靠近功率电极时等离子体电负度有升高的趋势,这种趋势可能与鞘层边界附近二次电子的动力学行为以及负离子的产生与消失过程有关.     

非平衡磁控溅射双势阱静电波动及其共振耦合

非平衡磁控靶表面电场和磁场相互正交构成磁阱结构,磁控靶和与之平行的偏压基片之间形成了另一种势阱结构,等离子体静电波动在这两种势阱结构中形成耦合共振.采用Langmuir探针研究等离子体中参数和浮置电位信号的功率谱密度.典型放电条件下两种势阱结构中的本征频率分别约为30—50 kHz和10—20 kHz,两种势阱条件下根据声驻波共振模式计算的电子温度数值与实验结果相符合.     

Electrostatic Probes for Studying Transport Properties in Tokamak Plasmas

Electrostatic probes for measuring the boundary plasma in tokamaks are reviewed and presented. Transport properties in JFT‐2, the ion temperature and the magnetic surface in JFT‐2M and floating potential fluctuations during the strong additional heating in JT‐60 are measured by several types of electrostatic probe the above‐mentioned purposes. The Langmuir probe including the double probe is applied to measure the spatial profile of boundary plasma in JFT‐2. The ion sensitive probe, the rotating cylindrical double probe, the asymmetric double probe and the differential double probe are applied to measure the ion temperature and magnetic surface in JFT‐2M. The reciprocating Langmuir probe applied to JFT‐2M observes the potential and density fluctuations and a new type probe is proposed for the quick diagnostic of core hot plasmas as a development of this probe. The fluctuation observed in JT‐60 is identified to be the ion cyclotron instability of the hot plasma caused by the strong anisotropy of the ion distribution function (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

A study of methods for moving particles in RF processing plasmas

Methods for moving charged particles in RF processing plasmas are investigated. These methods include varying RF power, varying chamber pressure, attraction and repulsion by an electrostatic probe, and movement with magnetic fields. Varying RF power changes the depth of the potential wells where particles are trapped. The RF power affects shape and location of the traps and the bulk plasma potential. Increasing the chamber pressure moves the sheath edge closer to the wafer being processed. Since particle traps are found at the plasma sheath edge increasing the chamber pressure will move the particle traps (and any trapped particles) closer to the wafer being processed. The Langmuir probe can repel particles when under negative bias and attract them when positively biased. This probe can also distort the sheath edge when the tip resides within the sheath. Applying a magnetic field can change the characteristics of the particle traps and produce a force on the charged dust particles     

Characteristic behaviour of plasma fluctuations inside a plasma bubble in presence of a magnetic field due to the formation of a potential well

Experiments were carried out to observe the effect of a magnetic field and grid biasing voltage in presence of a plasma bubble in a magnetized, filamentary discharge plasma system. A spherical mesh grid of 80% optical transparency was negatively biased and introduced into the plasma for creating a plasma bubble. Diagnostics via an electrical Langmuir probe and a hot emissive probe were extensively used for scanning the plasma bubble. Plasma floating potential fluctuations were measured at three different positions of the plasma bubble. The instability in the pattern showed the dynamic transition from periodic to chaotic for increasing magnetic fields. Time scale analysis using continuous wavelet transform was carried out to identify the presence of non‐linearity from the contour plots. The mechanisms of the low‐frequency instabilities along with the transition to chaos could be qualitatively explained. Non‐linear techniques such as fast Fourier transform, phase space plot, and recurrence plot were used to explore the dynamics of the system appearing during plasma fluctuations. In order to demonstrate the observed chaotic phenomena in this study, characteristics of chaos such as the Lyapunov exponent were obtained from experimental time series data. The experimentally observed potential structure is confirmed with numerical analysis based on fluid hydrodynamics.     

容性耦合电负性氧等离子体的激光诱导光致剥离技术诊断研究

采用波长532nm的高能脉冲激光束照射40.68MHz激发的容性耦合氧等离子体,并给处于激光束中央的探针施加一定的正偏压,由此诊断氧等离子体的空间电位和电负度。实验结果表明,探针偏压从0V逐渐增加时,探针搜集的电流波形从V型向倒U型转变,转变电压点正是电负性等离子体的空间电位。尝试着给出了运用激光诱导光致剥离技术诊断电负性等离子体空间电位的经验方法。另外,探针上施加的正偏压高于等离子体空间电位时,等离子体的电负度基本保持不变。实验还表明,氧等离子体的电负度随着射频输入功率的增加而呈现下降的趋势。     

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采用波长532nm的高能脉冲激光束照射40.68MHz激发的容性耦合氧等离子体,并给处于激光束中央的探针施加一定的正偏压,由此诊断氧等离子体的空间电位和电负度.实验结果表明,探针偏压从0V逐渐增加时,探针搜集的电流波形从V型向倒U型转变,转变电压点正是电负性等离子体的空间电位.尝试着给出了运用激光诱导光致剥离技术诊断电负性等离子体空间电位的经验方法.另外,探针上施加的正偏压高于等离子体空间电位时,等离子体的电负度基本保持不变.实验还表明,氧等离子体的电负度随着射频输入功率的增加而呈现下降的趋势.     

Structure of an exploding laser-produced plasma

We describe the first-ever volumetric, time-resolved measurements performed with a moving probe within an expanding dense plasma, embedded in a background magnetized plasma. High-resolution probe measurements of the magnetic field and floating potential in multiple 2D cut planes combined with a 1 Hz laser system reveal complex three-dimensional current systems within the expanding plasma. Static (ωreal=0) flutelike density striations are observed at the leading edge of the plasma, which are correlated to variations in the current layer at the edge of the expanding plasma.     

Influence of Plasma Resistance and Fluctuation on Probe Characteristics in Detached Recombining Plasmas

In order to find the causes of the strong anomaly of current‐voltage characteristics of Langmuir probe observed in detached recombining plasmas in a linear divertor plasma simulator, NAGDIS‐II, we have investigated plasma resistance along a magnetic field and potential fluctuations in the detached recombining plasmas. Simple calculation on the ratio between the plasma length, at which plasma resistance and resistance of ion sheath formed around a probe tip become equal, and an electron collection length indicates that the evaluation of electron temperature T_e becomes inaccurate at T_e of less than 0.6 eV when plasma density and neutral pressure are 1.0 × 10¹⁸ m^—3 and 10 mtorr, respectively. The potential fluctuation in detached recombining plasmas was found to be so large compared to T_e/e, which can also modify the probe characteristics.     

HL-2A等离子体边缘的快速单探针测量

介绍了对HL-2A装置中平面边缘等离子体的单探针测量。单探针是安装在可径向移动、并可绕轴旋 转360o的传动杆上的。在1MHz的快速采样频率下,测量了主等离子体边缘的温度、密度、悬浮电位、空间电位、极 向等离子体流速的径向分布。测量的结果表明,利用单探针测量的主等离子体边缘参数与朗缪尔四探针测量结果 基本一致。     

Parallel Correlation Studies of Fluctuations and the Impact of Perturbations in the Magnetic Configuration

The plasma turbulence in the boundary of fusion relevant experiments is known to have a quasi two‐dimensional nature: the scale lengths perpendicular to the magnetic field are in the order of mm to cm, but parallel to the magnetic field, the correlation lengths are in the order of several meters. Recent parallel correlation studies with Langmuir probes at the JET tokamak over very long connection lengths (23 m and 66 m probe tip separation along the magnetic field) showed a correlation of less than 50%, in contrast to the finding of 80–90% correlation in other devices at measurements with smaller probe tip separations. However, it was not clear if this is a genuine physical property of the electrostatic turbulence in the scrape‐off layer or whether perturbations in the magnetic configuration had caused an additional decorrelation by a time‐dependent misalignment of the two probe tips along the connecting field line. In this contribution we analyze the effect of such perturbations in the magnetic configuration on the parallel correlation measurements in a simple model and compare the results with those of the measurements at JET.     

Langmuir Probe Measurements in a Grid-Assisted Magnetron Sputtering System

The grid-assisted magnetron sputtering is a variation of the magnetron sputtering commonly used for thin film deposition. In this work, Langmuir probe measurements were performed in such a system by using the grid under two basic and practical electrical conditions, i.e., floating and grounded. The results show that grounding the grid leads to an enhancement of the plasma confinement and to increases in both floating and plasma potential, as inferred from the probe characteristics. The grounded grid drains electrons from the plasma, acting as an auxiliary anode and reducing the plasma diffusion toward the chamber walls. For the same discharge current, the improved confinement results in a lower electron temperature when compared to floating condition, although the electron densities are comparable in both cases.     

Langmuir Probe Determination of Charged Particles Density in an rf Discharge

The article presents results of probe measurements of the electron and ion densities in an argon rf discharge. The electron density is determined from the electron probe current at the space potential which is estimated by extrapolation of the linear part of the probe electron current dependence to the plasma potential. The plasma potential is calculated from the floating potential. The positive ion density is determined from the probe ion saturated current according to collisional KOPICZYNSKI and ZAKREWSKI model [1]. The agreement between the electron and ion densities is better than in the work of HOPKINS and GRAHAM [2], where the collisionless Lafram-boise theory is used under similar conditions.     

Potential measurements by an emissive probe in a magnetized plasma

We find that the probe potential determined from the intersection between the characteristics of a usual cold and an emissive probe is equal to the plasma potential. In a magnetized plasma the emissive floating potential method is still useful.     

A One‐Dimensional Particle‐in‐Cell Model of Plasma Build‐Up in Vacuum Arcs

Understanding the mechanism of plasma build‐up in vacuum arcs is essential in many fields of physics. A one‐dimensional particle‐in‐cell computer simulation model is presented, which models the plasma developing from a field emitter tip under electrical breakdown conditions, taking into account the relevant physical phenomena. As a starting point, only an external electric field and an initial enhancement factor of the tip are assumed. General requirements for plasma formation have been identified and formulated in terms of the initial local field and a critical neutral density. The dependence of plasma build‐up on tip melting current, the evaporation rate of neutrals and external circuit time constant has been investigated for copper and simulations imply that arcing involves melting currents around 0.5–1 A/μm², evaporation of neutrals to electron field emission ratios in the regime 0.01 – 0.05, plasma build‐up timescales in the order of ～ 1 – 10 ns and two different regimes depending on initial conditions, one producing an arc plasma, the other one not. Also the influence of the initial field enhancement factor and the external electric field required for ignition has been explored, and results are consistent with the experimentally measured local field value of ～ 10 GV/m for copper (© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)