Extended-chain crystals. I. General crystallization conditions and review of pressure crystallization of polyethylene

This is the first paper of a series of reports concerning extended-chain crystals of flexible, linear high polymers. The general conditions for crystal growth are discussed. Polymer crystallization is described as a two-step process: nucleation of each crystallizing molecule to a folded-chain conformation, followed by an increase in fold length in a solid-state reorganization step. This reorganization step is enhanced in the case of polyethylene by crystallization at high temperature under elevated pressure. Mechanical deformation during crystallization is also able to produce extended-chain crystals. The most promising method, however, is crystallization during polymerization. Previous work on crystallization of polyethylene under elevated pressure is critically reviewed.     

Photophysical processes in the NADH-alcohol dehydrogenase complex.

Fluorescent analysis showed the high sensitivity of the NADH-alcohol dehydrogenase complex to UV irradiation. The complex reacts to UV illumination with "photoresponse," a rapid decrease in NADH fluorescence intensity to some stationary level. No such decrease was found in the NADH solution without the protein. The maximum rate of photoresponse was observed at pH 8.0, i.e, the biochemical optimum for the enzyme. It is suggested that the main reason for the photoresponse is desorption of NADH from the protein due to vibrational and conformational relaxation after photoexcitation. The data obtained point to the possibility of controlling "dark" enzymatic processes with light.     

Polymer crystallization of ultrathin films on solid substrates

Recently, polymer crystallization in ultrathin films (thickness less than 100 nm) on solid substrates has attracted increased attention. As it can be considered to be a quasi-two-dimensional (2D) system with one-dimensional (1D) confinement along the substrate normal, ultrathin polymer film offers unique possibilities for testing the theories of crystallization and for studying the effects of confinement and interface which may invoke new mechanisms other than those applied in bulk crystallization of polymers. In this article, we will summarize the important results of ultrathin film crystallization of polymers obtained in the past decades. The morphologies, the crystallization kinetics, and the transformation between monolayer crystals with various metastabilities are reviewed in depth, with an attempt at discussing the ultrathin polymer film crystallization in the general framework of thermodynamics and kinetics of crystallization.     

From surface self-assembly to crystallization: prediction of protein crystallization conditions

A new criterion based on surface and volume diffusion kinetics was established to predict protein crystallization. Similar to the layer-by-layer crystal growth process of protein, the kinetics of the two-dimensional self-assembly of protein at the aqueous solution surface provides a convenient and reliable way to estimate the surface integration and the volume transport during protein crystallization. Both the surface and diffusion kinetics were estimated based on the protein self-assembly at the air/solution interface, which can be obtained by measuring the surface tension. A crystallization coefficient is found to provide an effective and reliable criterion to predict protein crystallization conditions. This criterion has been applied to lysozyme, concanavalin A and BSA crystallization, and it turns out to be very successful and more reliable than the second virial coefficient criterion.     

Kinetics of crystallization processes in some glass ceramic products

The paper presents the kinetic study of the crystallization processes which take place in basalt glasses containing variable amount of nucleation agent (CaF₂, 310%). The activation energies have been calculated using Kissinger's equation and verified with the Ozawa-Flynn-Wall equation. In this order, the DTA curves have been registered with different heating rates, between 4 and 20 degrees/min. A correlation equation between the activation energy and the amount of nucleation agent (% of CaF₂) was established. By X-ray diffraction it was proved that the crystalline phase formed in the crystallization process represents a pyroxenic solid solution, Ca(Mg,Fe)SiO₃. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Mathematical modelling of thermal decomposition processes

Some possible elementary reactions are not included in the classical mathematical models of thermal decomposition. For example, we can assume that in the thermal decompositions of simple carbonates a proportion of the O^2– ions produced on the reaction interface can migrate into the interior of the reactant phase, since at this temperature there is some probability of CO² exchange between an O^2– and a neighbouring CO ₃ ^2– ion. A similar diffusion-type process can be assumed in a wide class of decomposition reactions. The present state of computer science makes it possible to show by mathematical modelling how this migration influences the TG curves of the simplest contracting-sphere-type reactions. The resulting extended contracting-sphere model can provide the induction and the acceleration period of the TG curves.

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Zusammenfassung Einige mögliche Elementarreaktionen sind in dem klassischen mathematischen Modell der thermischen Zersetzung nicht enthalten. Z. B. kann angenommen werden, daß bei der thermischen Zersetzung einfacher Carbonate ein Teil der an der Reaktionsgrenzschicht entstandenen O^2–-Ionen in das Innere der reagierenden Phase wandern kann, da bei dieser Temperatur eine gewisse Wahrscheinlichkeit eines CO₂-Austausches zwischen einem O^2– und einem benachbarten CO ₃ ^2– -Ion besteht. Ein ähnlicher Vorgang vom Diffussionstyp kann bei einer großen Gruppe von Zersetzungsreaktionen angenommen werden. Die gegenwärtige Lage der Komputerwissenschaft ermöglicht an Hand der mathematischen Modellierung den Einfluß dieser Wanderung auf die TG-Kurven der einfachsten Reaktionen vom Typ der Kontraktionssphären zu zeigen. Das erhaltene erweiterte Kontraktionssphären-Modell kann die Induktions- und Beschleunigungsabschnitte der TG-Kurven liefern.

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Résumé Quelques réactions élémentaires possibles ne sont pas prises en compte dans le modèle mathématique classique de la décomposition thermique. On peut, par ex., supposer que lors de la décomposition thermique des carbonates simples, une partie des ions O^2– formés à l'interface de réaction puisse migrer à l'intérieur de la phase réagissante, puisqu'à cette température il existe une certaine probabilité d'échange entre un O^2– et un ion CO ₃ ^2– voisin. On peut supposer un processus similaire du type diffusionnel chez un grand nombre de réactions de décomposition. L'état actuel de la science des ordinateurs permet de montrer, à partir de modèles mathématiques, l'influence de cette migration sur les courbes TG des réactions les plus simples du type sphères de contraction. L'extension du modèle des sphères de contraction peut indiquer les périodes d'induction et d'accélération sur les courbes TG.

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- . , , , O^2– , , , CO₂ O^2– CO ₃ ^2– . , - . . - .

     

Unified isothermal and non-isothermal modelling of neat PEEK crystallization

A differential generalized Avrami’s law is used to model crystallization kinetic of PEEK in considering that PEEK crystallization results from the contribution of two distinct mechanisms. The form of this equation allows to predict with good accuracy both isothermal and non-isothermal crystallization kinetics. Nevertheless, isothermal model parameters are not entirely satisfactory for predicting non-isothermal crystallization and the identification of kinetic parameters is needed for both isothermal and non-isothermal cases. The results show that the Avrami exponents and Arrhenius activation energies remain constant for both conditions and therefore suggest that these parameters are only material dependent. On the other hand, the other kinetic parameters depend on the crystallization condition and vary with temperature and/or cooling rate.     

Simulation of positronium: Toward more realistic models of void spaces in materials

An exact treatment of a positron and electron in a two-chain, Path Integral Monte Carlo (PIMC) simulation is used to calculate both self-annihilation and pick-off rates of Ps at finite temperature. We find the effect of the linear dielectric response of a homogeneous material on the annihilation rate of positrons and Ps in spherical voids. In addition, we find lifetimes and structural information for Ps in cylindrical channels, both with and without adsorbed fluid atoms.     

Calorimetric monitoring of industrial chemical processes

Enthalpimetric methods used in chemical production and in process development are reviewed.On-line methods are applied to concentration analysis, to safety monitoring and to the control of reaction progress.The most promising applications of thermal methods are found in process development: enthalpimetric process investigation on the bench scale. Design principles for “process calorimeters” are outlined and applications to a pressure reaction, to a highly unstable radical reaction and to fermentations are shown.     

Bilinear modelling of batch processes. Part I: theoretical discussion

When studying the principal component analysis (PCA) or partial least squares (PLS) modelling of batch process data, one realizes that there is a wide range of approaches. In many cases, new modelling approaches are presented just because they work properly for a particular application, for example, on‐line monitoring and a given number of processes. A clear understanding of why these approaches perform successfully and which are the advantages and disadvantages in front of the others is seldom supplied. Why does modelling after batch‐wise unfolding capture changing dynamics? What are the consequences of variable‐wise unfolding? Is there any best unfolding method? When should several models for a single process be used? In this paper, it is shown how these and other related questions can be answered by properly analyzing the dynamic covariance structures of the various approaches. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mathematical modelling and simulation of adsorption processes at spherical microparticles.

A model for the adsorption process at spherical microparticles under transient diffusion conditions has been developed and solved using numerical simulation. This model allowed us to demonstrate that the system is controlled by two main dimensionless parameters: the adsorption rate constant ka' and the saturation parameter beta. Analytical models for the adsorption process at spherical microparticles under steady-state mass transport conditions have been derived. These models use previously developed empirical relationships for the calculation of the mass transfer coefficient (kc). The properties of the system were studied for both the case where mass transport is described by diffusion only and the case where it is the result of a coupled diffusion/convection process. These mathematical tools were then used to analyse the results obtained for the uptake of CuII by glassy carbon powder modified with the monomer L-cysteine methyl ester and to extract a minimum value for the adsorption rate constant which was found to be of the order of 10(-4) cm s(-1).     

Tutorial: The modelling of chemical processes

The modelling of chemical processes entails the computation of the concentration profiles of all reaction species as a function of the reaction time. The basis for the calculations is the system of differential equations (ODE's) that is defined by the reaction mechanism. Most textbooks on chemical kinetics concentrate on those few reaction mechanisms that lead to ODE's with explicit solutions. In this tutorial, we demonstrate that numerical integration is a viable alternative, that it can be applied to any mechanism, and that it is easy to do so. Matlab example programs illustrate the concepts and they allow the reader to explore the effects of changing conditions such as initial concentrations or rate constants etc. Example reaction mechanisms include a zero-th order enzymatic reaction and reactions at non-constant temperature and pH.     

乙苯工艺技术开发及工业应用进展

乙苯是重要的基本有机化工原料,主要用于生产苯乙烯,进而作为合成橡胶和塑料等高分子材料的单体.乙苯的生产主要采用苯和乙烯的烷基化工艺.传统的AlCl3法由于存在设备腐蚀和环境污染等问题己逐步被环境友好的分子筛烷基化法取代.分子筛烷基化法分为气相法和液相法.气相烷基化催化剂为ZSM-5分子筛,例如Mobil-Badger气相烷基化工艺;液相烷基化催化剂有Y,Beta和MCM-22分子筛,例如Lummus/UOP的EBOne工艺和Mobil-Raythen的EBMax工艺.近年来,随着经济的发展,全球范围内乙苯需求量逐年增加,产能也逐渐扩大.尤其在中国大陆,目前乙苯产能居世界首位,其乙苯工艺技术的开发也最为活跃.经过20多年的发展,苯烷基化制乙苯工艺取得了长足发展.中国科学院大连化学物理研究所在成功合成ZSM-5/ZSM-11分子筛的基础上,与中国石化、中国石油联合开发了苯与干气气相烷基化制乙苯工艺;中国石化上海石油化工研究院则以ZSM-5分子筛为基础,开发了适应原料多样性的苯气相烷基化制乙苯催化剂和工艺技术,可以采用石油苯、焦化苯、纯乙烯、乙醇和稀乙烯为原料;石油化工科学研究院则开发了基于Beta分子筛的苯与乙烯液相烷基化催化剂及液相循环烷基化工艺.以上催化剂及工艺技术均己工业化应用.此外,实现催化烷基化与分离同时进行的催化蒸馏工艺以及乙烷脱氢再与苯烷基化的两段法制乙苯工艺的研究也取得了一定进展.在苯烷基化制乙苯工艺中,气相法操作温度高,苯与乙烯进料摩尔比高,因而能耗高,同时二甲苯含量高,产品纯度低.液相烷基化工艺则具有温度低和苯/烯比低的特点,其能耗控制及产品质量均优于气相法工艺.但是,液相反应中的扩散阻力大,孔道为10元环的ZSM-5分子筛失活迅速,因而选用了具有12元环孔道的Y,Beta和具有表面12元环碗状半超笼的MCM-22分子筛为催化剂.然而,液相法工艺的苯与乙烯进料摩尔比仍然远高于理论化学计量比,其产品中含有一定比例的多乙基苯(主要是二乙苯),需采用烷基转移过程将多乙基苯与苯反应生成乙苯.进一步降低苯/烯比、提高单乙苯选择性是未来乙苯工艺开发的努力方向.研究表明,介孔分子筛及纳米片状分子筛在苯烷基化反应中具有优于常规分子筛的催化表现,即更高的乙烯转化率和乙苯选择性.其原因在于,扩散是影响苯烷基化反应性能的关键因素,扩散性能的改善使得产物从活性位解吸后更容易扩散出去,进而空出活性位并进一步催化新的底物.同时,单烷基化产物与新的烷基化试剂进一步发生烷基化的几率降低,提高了单烷基化产物的选择性.因而,采用扩散性能更好的催化剂催化苯烷基化反应前景看好,关键问题在于如何简单并廉价地获取该类材料.另外,虽然分子筛催化苯烷基化是一个环境友好的工艺过程,但是在分子筛催化剂制备过程中会产生环境污染.同时,失活催化剂的处理也是需要考虑的问题.开发分子筛的绿色合成技术,减轻甚至消除环境污染是一个值得努力的方向;开发失活催化剂的综合利用技术,如采用失活催化剂为原料用于分子筛的合成,可以作为环境保护的有效手段.     

Small-angle light scattering and crystallization processes in solid polymer films

Information, not previously measurable, about the internal crystallization processes occurring within spherulitic films can now be obtained by combining refractive index, birefringence, and small-angle light-scattering measurements. The surroundings of a spherulite in a solid film are composed of both the adjacent spherulites and their interstices (boundaries), and it is shown that different crystallization processes can occur in each of these regions. Upon annealing a quenched isotactic polypropylene film, the rate of crystallization within the interstices of the space-filling spherulites is observed to be greater than the rate of crystallization within the spherulites themselves.     

Towards disentangling coupled electronic-vibrational dynamics in ultrafast non-adiabatic processes

Femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy is emerging as a new technique for investigating polyatomic excited state dynamics. Due to the sensitivity of photoelectron spectroscopy to both electronic configurations and vibrational dynamics, it is well suited to the study of non-adiabatic processes such as internal conversion, which often occur on sub-picosecond time scales. We discuss the technical requirements for such experiments, including lasers systems, energy- and angle-resolved photoelectron spectrometers and new detectors for coincidence experiments. We present a few examples of these methods applied to problems in diatomic wavepacket dynamics and ultrafast non-adiabatic processes in polyatomic molecules.     

Abrasively modified electrodes: mathematical modelling and numerical simulation of electrochemical dissolution/growth processes under cyclic voltammetric conditions

An approximate mathematical model for electrochemical dissolution/growth processes of diffusionally independent and well-separated particles randomly dispersed on an inert conducting electrode surface is presented and solved using numerical simulation. The model, mimicking abrasively modified electrodes where particles of electroactive voltammograms solid are immobilised on an electrode surface, provides clear insights into the effects of different parameters on the voltammetric response of such systems and permits the exploration of the competition taking place between mass transport and surface processes. The mathematical model is then compared with experimental data obtained with basal plane pyrolytic graphite electrode abrasively modified with solid particles of perinaphthenone and studied in aqueous solution.Dedicated to Professor Dr. Alan M. Bond on the occasion of his 60th birthday.     

Stabilization of electrode activity in industrial processes of organic synthesis

Carrying out the processes of organic electrosynthesis on the industrial scale is associated with the decay in the electrode activity as the main problem. This makes impossible the electrode operation without dismantling every 5–6 months, to say the least. The decrease in the electrode activity, its “aging”, is usually due to the fact that its surface is blocked by resinous products formed during the electrolysis. The electrode aging was practically ignored in the literature. In addition to the well-known methods of solving this problem, i.e., the use of mediators and ferromagnetic catalysts retained on the cathode by the magnetic field, the particular examples of electrode activation in the course of large-scale electrosynthesis processes are shown which are based on observations of the authors.