Self‐assembled graphene oxide–gelatin nanocomposite hydrogels: Characterization,formation mechanisms,and pH‐sensitive drug release behavior

Novel physically crosslinked graphene oxide (GO)‐gelatin nanocomposite hydrogels were obtained by self‐assembly. The hydrogels with various ratios of GO to gelatin were prepared, and characterized by X‐ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The static and dynamic rheological properties of the hydrogels were investigated, along with the underlying hydrogel formation mechanisms. The storage modulus of the hydrogels (containing 98–98.5 wt % water) reached 114.5 kPa, owing to the relatively strong physical bonding (i.e., hydrogen bonding and electrostatic forces) between GO and gelatin. Drug release tests showed that the drug release from the hydrogel was pH‐dependent, with 96% of the model drug released in a neutral environment, compared to 28% released in an acidic medium. These hydrogels could have potential in pH‐sensitive drug delivery. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2015 , 53, 356–367     

Temperature‐dependent self‐assembly and rheological behavior of a thermoreversible pmma–PnBA–PMMA triblock copolymer gel

Self‐assembly and mechanical properties of triblock copolymers in a mid‐block selective solvent are of interest in many applications. Herein, we report physical assembly of an ABA triblock copolymer, [PMMA–Pn BA–PMMA] in two different mid‐block selective solvents, n‐butanol and 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol. Gel formation resulting from end‐block associations and the corresponding changes in mechanical properties have been investigated over a temperature range of ?80 °C to 60 °C, from near the solvent melting points to above the gelation temperature. Shear‐rheometry, thermal analysis, and small‐angle neutron scattering data reveal formation and transition of structure in these systems from a liquid state to a gel state to a percolated cluster network with decrease in temperature. The aggregated PMMA end‐blocks display a glass transition temperature. Our results provide new understanding into the structural changes of a self‐assembled triblock copolymer gel over a large length scale and wide temperature range. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2017 , 55 , 877–887     

Rheology of (±)‐camphor‐10‐sulfonic acid doped polyaniline‐m‐cresol conducting gel nanocomposites

The rheological behavior of polyaniline‐(±champhor‐10‐sulfonic acid)_0.5‐m‐cresol [PANI‐CSA_0.5‐m‐cresol] gel nanocomposites (GNCs) with Na‐montmorillonite clay (intercalated tactoids) is studied. The shear viscosity exhibits Newtonian behavior for low shear rate (<2 × 10^?4 s^?1) and power law variation for higher shear rate. The zero shear viscosity (η₀) and the characteristic time (λ) increase but the power law index (n) decrease with increase in clay concentration. In the GNCs storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) are invariant with frequency in contrast to the pure gel. The G′ and G′ exhibit the gel behavior of the GNCs up to 105 °C in contrast to the melting for the pure gel at 75.7 °C. The percent increase of G′ of GNCs increases dramatically (619% in GNC‐5) with increasing clay concentration. The conductivity values are 10.5, 5.65, 5.51, and 4.75 S/cm for pure gel, GNC‐1, GNC‐3, and GNC‐5, respectively, promising their possible use in soft sensing devices. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 46: 28–40, 2008     

Effects of phenolic compounds on gelation behavior of gelatin gels

The effects of phenolic additives on the gelation behavior of gelatin gels were investigated using thermomechanical analysis (TMA) for study of gel‐melting temperature, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) for study of gel‐storage modulus and gel‐aging stability, viscometry for study of gelation time, and texture analyzer for study of gel strength and gel melting. Thermodynamically, the addition of 1,3‐benzenediol, 1,4‐benzenediol or 1,3,5‐benzenetriol favored the gelation process of gelatin solutions (increases in T_m and aging stability) due to the introduction of extra physical crosslinks among gelatin chains through hydrogen bonding, while the addition of 1,2‐benzenediol had a negative effect (decreases in T_m and aging stability) possibly due to intra‐hydrogen bonding of the additive molecule itself. All the phenolic compounds had little effect on gel moduli. Kinetically, the introduction of 1,2‐benzenediol or 1,4‐benzenediol slowed the gelation process, while introduction of catechin, a polyphenol, accelerated the first stage of the gelation process. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem 39: 224–231, 2001     

Viscoelastic properties of supramolecular soft materials with transient polymer network

A series of supramolecular soft materials with hydrogen bonded transient networks was prepared by blending carboxy‐terminated telechelic poly(ethyl acrylate) (PEA‐(COOH)₂) and polyethyleneimine (PEI). Effects of PEA‐(COOH)₂ molecular weight (M_PEA) and the blend ratio on the viscoelastic properties were investigated by rheological and small angle X‐ray scattering measurements. Rubbery plateau appeared by adding PEI due to network formation with ionic hydrogen bonded crosslinks between amines on PEI and carboxylic acids on PEA‐(COOH)₂. The highest temperature of a storage modulus‐loss modulus crossover as well as the highest flow activation energy was attained at a certain mole ratio of amines to carboxylic acids, irrelevant to M_PEA, indicating optimized supramolecular networks were achieved by stoichiometric balance of two functional groups. Since telechelic PEA‐(COOH)₂ serves as a network strand, the plateau modulus was inversely proportional to M_PEA, which was consistent with the correlation length between crosslinks estimated by X‐ray scattering measurements. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2014 , 52, 755–764     

Triple redox/temperature responsive diselenide‐containing homopolypeptide micelles and supramolecular hydrogels thereof

Stimuli‐responsive polypeptides are receiving much attention for drug delivery systems and tissue engineering scaffolds; however, it is challenging to construct multiple‐responsive polypeptides and one‐component polymeric hydrogels. Herein, a novel type of triple redox/temperature‐responsive diselenide‐containing poly(methoxydiethylene glycol‐l ‐glutamate) homopolypeptide was facilely synthesized by selenocystamine‐initiated ring‐opening polymerization in DMF at 30 °C, and their chemical structures and physical properties were fully characterized by means of ¹H NMR, GPC, FT‐IR, WAXD, and CD. They self‐assembled into spherical micelles in aqueous solution, which possess a lower critical solution temperature, redox‐responsiveness inherited from diselenide bond, and the triple stimuli‐sensitive self‐assembly behaviors, as characterized by means of turbidity, DLS, TEM, and zeta potential measurements. The diselenide‐containing homopolypeptides formed supramolecular hydrogels at room temperature, exhibiting a thermal gel–sol transition. The rheological tests evidence that the mechanical modulus of the hydrogel is independent of angular frequency within 100 rad/s and at 25 °C, in which the storage modulus of G′ is order of magnitude greater than the loss modulus of G″, displaying a solid‐like elastic behavior. Moreover, the mechanical modulus of the hydrogel can be tuned by changing the chain length of the homopolypeptide, the 10‐mM 1,4‐dithiothreitol (DTT) reduction, and 1 mM H₂O₂ oxidation, respectively. Consequently, this work provides a simple strategy to fabricate triple‐stimuli responsive polypeptide micelles and one‐component hydrogels. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2018 , 56, 1067–1077     

Competition between supernucleation and plasticization in the crystallization and rheological behavior of PCL/CNT‐based nanocomposites and nanohybrids

PCL was blended with pristine multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and with a nanohybrid obtained from the same MWCNT but grafted with low molecular weight PCL, employing concentrations of 0.25 to 5 wt % of MWCNT and MWCNT‐g‐PCL. Excellent CNT dispersion was found in all samples leading to supernucleation of both nanofiller types. Nanohybrids with 1 wt % or less MWCNTs crystallize faster than nanocomposites (due to supernucleation), while the trend eventually reverses at higher nanotubes content (because of plasticization). Rheological results show that yield‐like behavior develops in both nanocomposites, even for the minimum content of carbon nanotubes. In addition, the MWCNT‐g‐PCL family, when compared with the neat polymer, exhibits lower values of viscosity and modulus in oscillatory shear, and higher compliance in creep. These rheological differences are discussed in terms of the plasticization effect caused by the existence of low molecular weight free and grafted PCL chains in the nanohybrids. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2017 , 55, 1310–1325     

Gelatin hydrogels cross-linked with bisvinyl sulfonemethyl. 2. The physical and chemical networks

This paper deals with the physical and the chemical gelation of gelatin in the presence of a reactant, bisvinyl sulfonemethyl (BVSM). The strategy of this investigation is to separate the contributions of the two types of cross-links in order to deduce the resultant elasticity of the network. In addition, the question raised by several authors concerning an increase of the thermal stability of the triple helices in the presence of cross-links was examined by using several techniques. In this study, the concentration of gelatin and BVSM were kept constant, while the influence of the thermal protocols was put in evidence. The gel formation was followed by rheological, thermodynamic (microcalorimetry), and optical spectroscopy (optical rotation) measurements. The results demonstrate the large differences which arise on the storage moduli by changing the thermal protocols. Cross-linking of the networks in the presence of the triple helices induce a heterogeneous repartition of the bonds, which can form along the triple helices and at the end of the sequences. Consequently, the rubber like network obtained by denaturation of the triple helices is still reminiscent of the initial twist of the chains, and a large modulus is observed, as if rigid segments were still present (storage modulus 10 times larger than for random cross-linking). The hydrogels have an elastic modulus which is larger that the addition of the physical and chemical contributions. The interpretation of the network elasticity is based on the predominant role of the rigid rods of triple helices, where the BVSM cross-links can either modify the ratio between the apparent length and distance between rods, l/d, and/or increase the rigidity of the interchain connections, which are loose coils for the physical gels. The hydrogels investigated have a network which is still close to the percolation threshold of the physical gel, and therefore, the statistical models known for well developed networks cannot be directly validated in these experimental conditions.     

Synthesis and characterization of an adipic acid–derived epoxy resin

Adipic acid, a highly abundant chemical that can be produced from biomass, was used to prepare an aromatic‐free epoxy resin. Synthesis of the diglycidyl adipate was performed by a one‐step process using epichlorohydrin and by a two‐step process comprising allylation and epoxidation. The viscosity of diglycidyl adipate is 25 mPa·s, which is 99% lower than the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA). The storage modulus at 25 °C for cured diglycidyl adipate and DGEBA is 2000 and 3200 MPa, respectively. The alpha transition temperature through peak of the loss modulus and the peak of tan(δ), are 77 °C and 90 °C, respectively. Low‐viscosity epoxy applications are discussed herein. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2016 , 54, 2625–2631     

Effect of sodium poly(styrene sulfonate) on thermoreversible gelation of gelatin

The effect of an added polyanion, sodium poly(styrene sulfonate) (NaPSS), on the thermoreversible gelation and remelting of gelatin gels has been investigated by polarimetry and rheology. The presence of NaPSS can either enhance or reduce collagenlike helix formation, depending on the polymer concentration relative to that of gelatin and the gelation temperature. At temperatures < 20°C, the helical content is reduced by increasing the amount of added NaPSS, demonstrating the disruption of helical structure of gelatin by the polyanion. Synchronous measurements of optical rotation and modulus at 25°C, in both gelation and remelting, indicate that the optical rotation at the gel point for the pure gelatin is lowered on addition of NaPSS. At low frequency, the storage modulus of gelatin is increased by the addition of a small amount of NaPSS relative to that of gelatin, but decreased with excess NaPSS. The mechanical properties of gelatin with and without NaPSS will be discussed in light of the competition between network junction formation by strands of triple helices among gelatin chains and temporary ionic crosslinking between gelatin and the polyanion. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 37: 2287–2295, 1999     

Healable network polymers bearing flexible poly(lauryl methacrylate) chains via thermo‐reversible furan‐maleimide diels–alder reaction

A new ATRP initiator containing two furyl rings, namely, bis(furan‐2‐ylmethyl) 2‐bromopentanedioate was synthesized starting from commercially available l ‐glutamic acid as a precursor. Well‐defined bisfuryl‐terminated poly(lauryl methacrylate) macromonomers with molecular weight and dispersity in the range 5000–12,000 g mol^?1 and 1.30–1.37, respectively, were synthesized employing the initiator by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). Independently, 1,1′,1″‐(nitrilotris(ethane‐2,1‐diyl))tris(1H‐pyrrole‐2,5‐dione) was synthesized as a tris‐maleimide counterpart for furan‐maleimide click reaction. Thermo‐reversible network polymer bearing flexible poly(lauryl methacrylate; (PLMA) chains was obtained by furan‐maleimide Diels–Alder click reaction of bisfuryl‐terminated PLMA with 1,1′,1″‐(nitrilotris(ethane‐2,1‐diyl))tris(1H‐pyrrole‐2,5‐dione). The prepared network polymer showed retro‐Diels–Alder reaction in the temperature range 110–170 °C as determined from DSC analysis. The presence of low Tg (–40 °C) PLMA chains induced chain mobility to the network structure which led to the complete scratch healing of the coating at 60 °C in five days due to furan‐maleimide adduct formation. The storage modulus of the network polymer was found to be 3.7 × 10⁴ Pa at the constant angular frequency of 5 rad/sec and strain of 0.5%. The regular reversal of storage (G ′) and loss modulus (G ″) was observed with repeated heating (40 to 110 °C) and cooling cycles (110 to 40 °C) at constant angular frequency and strain. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2017 , 55 , 2700–2712     

Semidilute solution structure of cellulose in an ionic liquid and its mixture with a polar organic co‐solvent studied by small‐angle X‐ray scattering

Structural and thermodynamic properties of cellulose solutions in the ionic liquid 1‐ethyl‐3‐methylimidazolium acetate (EMIMAc) and its binary mixtures with N,N‐dimethyl formamide (DMF) are studied by small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS). These measurements indicate molecular dissolution of the cellulose chains without any significant aggregation. The power–law relationships of the evaluated correlation length and osmotic modulus to concentration exhibit exponents of ?0.76 and 2.06 for EMIMAc and ?0.80 and 2.14 for DMF/EMIMAc solvent mixture, respectively. Thus, these solvents can be considered to be good solvents for cellulose. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2017 , 55 , 888–894     

Unimodal molecular weight distribution of commercial polymers from viscoelastic data

This article presents a method that provides the molecular weight distribution (MWD) of polymeric material from rheological data. The technique has been developed to deal with linear polymers with a log‐normal molecular weight distribution. The rheological data must include the shear storage modulus, G′(ω), and the shear loss modulus, G″ (ω), ranging from the terminal zone to the rubberlike zone. It was not necessary to achieve the relaxation spectrums via the extremely unstable problem of inverting integral equations. The method has been tested with different polymers (polydimethylsiloxane, polyisoprene, random copolymer of ethylene and propylene, and polystyrene) and the calculated MWDs were in good agreement with experimental data. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 38: 1539–1546, 2000     

Early stages of gelation in gelatin solution detected by dynamic oscillating rheology and nuclear magnetic spectroscopy

This study focuses on the early stages of the gelation of an aqueous type A (pig skin) gelatin solution. The thermo-reversible mono and triple helix formation was observed by rheology and proton NMR relaxation measurements. At high temperatures (T > 330 K), gelatin molecules form flexible random coils of small hydrodynamic radius, the elastic modulus of the solution is relatively low. On decreasing the temperature (330-320 K), mono helix formation begins, connected with an increase of the storage modulus and the hydrodynamic radius. The absence of a significant concentration dependence of this early variation of the modulus indicates the intramolecular nature of this structural change. The simultaneous decrease of the spin-spin relaxation times of the ¹H signals of certain aminoacids confirms its effect on the molecular mobility. As this affects especially the signals of arginine and lysine, we conclude that these basic aminoacids play a significant role in forming the intramolecular interactions. The formation of a three-dimensional network occurs at a point at which the viscosity begins to increase rapidly near the gel point (T < 320 K). This process is clearly dominated by intermolecular interactions, as the slope as well as the starting point of the rapid increase significantly depends on the concentration.     

Induced changes of polymer organization in a gel of poly(vinyl alcohol) crosslinked by Congo red

Different gel microstructures are induced at variable poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and Congo red concentrations, as revealed by ultrarapid freezing and a replica technique for transmission electron microscopy. The polymer microstructures observed include random coils, rigid polymer rods, and long fibers. The development of the different polymer conformations is proposed to be dependent on the degree of intramolecular and intermolecular crosslinking and on the electrostatic interactions of the Congo red ions. The rigid‐rod conformation appears to be the most energetically stable form; it is disrupted by electrostatic effects around the polymer overlap concentration (C*_PVA). We propose that the gel microstructure influences the physical properties of the gel. Gels possessing the rigid‐rod microstructure have increased Young's storage modulus values. Two possible mechanisms of gelation are suggested. The first describes a one‐stage reaction when the polymer concentration approximates C*_PVA, where polymers in an extended random‐coil conformation undergo intermolecular crosslinking without any microstructural changes. The second describes a two‐stage reaction when the polymer concentration is less than or greater than C*, where a disorder–order transition results in the formation of rigid polymer rods and fibers followed by the formation of a macromolecular network. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 39: 1471–1483, 2001     

Negative velocity dependence of friction for poly(2‐Acrylamido‐2‐methyl propanesulfonic acid) hydrogel sliding against a glass surface in the low‐velocity region

The frictional behavior of poly(2‐acrylamido‐2‐methylpropanesulfonic acid) (PAMPS) hydrogel sliding against a glass substrate in water over a wide sliding velocity (v) region has been investigated. The results showed that the frictional behavior of PAMPS gel conformed to a hydrodynamic lubrication mechanism only at relatively high sliding velocities. At low sliding velocities, a “negative” velocity dependence of friction was observed, which we believe not to be attributable to the experimental friction‐measuring mode used. This wider and weak mixed region at low sliding velocities is in contrast to the extremely narrow mixed region in the case of solid friction with a lubricant. The area of the PAMPS hydrogel surface subject to shearing decreased with increasing sliding velocity, and this would seem to be responsible for the weakly negative dependence of friction on velocity. In addition, the friction was found to increase with increasing the compressive modulus (E) of the gels attributing to the shearing exerted on the gel surface, in which the shear stress increased with E. The hydration layer between the sliding surfaces also contributes to the friction and weakens the dependence of friction on E to some extent. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2014 , 52, 765–772     

Physically and Chemically Crosslinked Gelatin Gels

In this paper, we examine the rheological and the structural properties of different types of gelatin networks, physical, chemical and both. The physical gel is due to the formation of collagen type triple helices when cooling the solutions. Chemically crosslinked gels are obtained with a reagent, in our case the bis(vinylsulfonyl)methane (BVSM), kindly provided by Kodak Industrie (France). Each BVSM molecule provides two covalent bonds. The chemical reaction was followed by microcalorimetry (MicroDSC III from Setaram, Caluire, France). The relation between shear moduli and crosslinking for the three types of gels is discussed, in relation with theoretical models of randomly crosslinked systems.     

Nanocomposite hydrogel consisting of Na‐montmorillonite with enhanced mechanical properties

A new kind of nanocomposite (NC) hydrogel with Na‐montmorillonite (MMT) is presented in this article. The NC hydrogels were synthesized by free radical copolymerization of acrylamide and (3‐acrylamidopropyl) trimethylammonium chloride (ATC) in the presence of MMT and N,N′‐methylene‐bis‐acrylamide used as chemical cross‐linker. Due to the cation‐exchange reaction between MMT and ATC (cationic monomer) during the synthesis of NC hydrogels, MMT platelets were considered chemical “plane” cross‐linkers, different from “point” cross‐linkers. With increasing amount of MMT, the crosslinking degree enhanced, causing a decrease of the swelling degree at equilibrium. Investigations of mechanical properties indicated that NC hydrogels exhibited enhanced strength and toughness, which resulted from chemical interaction between exfoliated MMT platelets and polymer chains in hydrogels. Dynamic shear measurements showed that both storage modulus and loss modulus increased with increasing MMT content. The idea described here provided a new route to prepare hydrogels with high mechanical properties by using alternative natural Na‐MMT. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 2015 , 53, 1020–1026     

Influence of multiwall carbon nanotube on physical properties of poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) nanocomposites

Polymer nanocomposites consisting of multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and poly(ethylene 2,6‐naphthalate) (PEN) were prepared by a melt blending process in a twin‐screw extruder. The storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) of the PEN/MWCNT nanocomposites increased with increasing frequency, and this increment being more significant at low frequency. The terminal zone slope of G′ for the PEN/MWCNT nanocomposites decreased with increasing MWCNT content, and the nonterminal behavior of those was related to the dominant nanotube–nanotube interactions at higher MWCNT content, leading to the formation of the interconnected or network‐like structures of MWCNT in the polymer nanocomposites. The decrease in the slope of the plot of log G′ versus log G″ for the PEN/MWCNT nanocomposites with increasing MWCNT content suggested the changes in the microstructures of the polymer nanocomposites by incorporating MWCNT. The incorporation of very small quantity of MWCNT significantly improved the mechanical properties of the PEN/MWCNT nanocomposites. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 44: 1062–1071, 2006     

Viscoelastic behavior of polyacrylonitrile/dimethyl sulfoxide concentrated solution with water

The spinnability and polydispersity of polyacrylonitrile/dimethyl sulfoxide (PAN/DMSO)/H₂O spinning solutions with conventional PAN molecular weight and comparative high PAN concentration have been investigated using a cone‐plate rheometer. It is observed from the measurements that, the viscosities of the solutions decreased with the rising of shear rate, and then stabilized to almost the same value, regardless of the PAN concentration. The chain orientation in the fiber formed under constant shear rate cannot be changed considerably even after long relaxation of more than 900s. For dynamic experiments, a steady increase of both G′ and G″ with escalating oscillation frequency was seen for all samples. Higher viscous‐elastic modulus at higher H₂O content was found, too. It is also concluded from the log G′ ? log G″ plot and the gel point that the PAN/DMSO/H₂O system with regular PAN molecular weight behaves very close to a mono‐disperse system, thus very suitable for gel spinning and for preparation of high performance PAN precursor fiber. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 47: 1437–1442, 2009