Effects of noise levels and call types on the source levels of killer whale calls

Accurate parameter estimates relevant to the vocal behavior of marine mammals are needed to assess potential effects of anthropogenic sound exposure including how masking noise reduces the active space of sounds used for communication. Information about how these animals modify their vocal behavior in response to noise exposure is also needed for such assessment. Prior studies have reported variations in the source levels of killer whale sounds, and a more recent study reported that killer whales compensate for vessel masking noise by increasing their call amplitude. The objectives of the current study were to investigate the source levels of a variety of call types in southern resident killer whales while also considering background noise level as a likely factor related to call source level variability. The source levels of 763 discrete calls along with corresponding background noise were measured over three summer field seasons in the waters surrounding the San Juan Islands, WA. Both noise level and call type were significant factors on call source levels (1-40 kHz band, range of 135.0-175.7 dB(rms) re 1 [micro sign]Pa at 1 m). These factors should be considered in models that predict how anthropogenic masking noise reduces vocal communication space in marine mammals.     

North Pacific right whale up-call source levels and propagation distance on the southeastern Bering Sea shelf

Call source levels, transmission loss, and ambient noise levels were estimated for North Pacific right whale (Eubalaena japonica) up-calls recorded in the southeastern Bering Sea in autumn of 2000 and 2001. Distances to calling animals, needed to estimate source levels, were based on two independent techniques: (1) arrival-time differences on three or more hydrophones and (2) shallow-water dispersion of normal modes on a single receiver. Average root-mean-square (rms) call source levels estimated by the two techniques were 178 and 176 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m, respectively, over the up-call frequency band, which was determined per call and averaged 90 to 170 Hz. Peak-to-peak source levels were 14 to 22 dB greater than rms levels. Transmission loss was approximately 15?log(10)(range), intermediate between cylindrical and spherical spreading. Ambient ocean noise within the up-call band varied from 72 to 91 dB re 1 μPa(2)/Hz. Under average noise conditions, call spectrograms were detectable for whales at distances up to 100 km, but propagation and detection distance may vary depending on environmental parameters and anthropogenic noise. Obtaining distances to animals and acoustic detection range is a step toward using long-term passive acoustic recordings to estimate abundance for this critically endangered whale population.     

A generalized baleen whale call detection and classification system

Passive acoustic monitoring allows the assessment of marine mammal occurrence and distribution at greater temporal and spatial scales than is now possible with traditional visual surveys. However, the large volume of acoustic data and the lengthy and laborious task of manually analyzing these data have hindered broad application of this technique. To overcome these limitations, a generalized automated detection and classification system (DCS) was developed to efficiently and accurately identify low-frequency baleen whale calls. The DCS (1) accounts for persistent narrowband and transient broadband noise, (2) characterizes temporal variation of dominant call frequencies via pitch-tracking, and (3) classifies calls based on attributes of the resulting pitch tracks using quadratic discriminant function analysis (QDFA). Automated detections of sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) downsweep calls and North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) upcalls were evaluated using recordings collected in the southwestern Gulf of Maine during the spring seasons of 2006 and 2007. The accuracy of the DCS was similar to that of a human analyst: variability in differences between the DCS and an analyst was similar to that between independent analysts, and temporal variability in call rates was similar among the DCS and several analysts.     

Acoustic detection of North Atlantic right whale contact calls using the generalized likelihood ratio test

This paper addresses the problem of passive acoustic detection of contact calls produced by the highly endangered North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis. The proposed solution is based on using a generalized likelihood ratio test detector of polynomial-phase signals with unknown amplitude and polynomial coefficients observed in the presence of locally stationary Gaussian noise. The closed form representation for a minimal sufficient statistic is derived and a realizable detection scheme is developed. The receiver operation characteristic curves are calculated using empirical data recordings containing known right whale calls. The curves demonstrate that the proposed detector provides superior detection performance as compared with other known detection techniques for northern right whale contact calls.     

Sound production by North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in surface active groups

The surface active group (SAG) is the most commonly observed surface social behavior of North Atlantic right whales. Recordings were made from 52 SAGs in the Bay of Fundy, Canada between July and September, from 1999 to 2002. The call types recorded from these groups were similar to those described previously for Southern right whales (Eubalaena australis), with six major call types being termed scream, gunshot, blow, upcall, warble, and downcall. The percentage of total calls of each call type depended on the group size and composition. The most common call type recorded was the scream call. The scream calls were produced by the focal female in a SAG. Production of other sound types can be attributed to whales other than the focal female, with gunshot and upcalls produced by males, and warble calls produced by female calves. The source levels for these sounds range from 137 to 162 dB rms re 1 ,tPa-m for tonal calls and 174 to 192 dB rms for broadband gunshot sounds.     

Characteristics of gunshot sound displays by North Atlantic right whales in the Bay of Fundy

North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) produce a loud, broadband signal referred to as the gunshot sound. These distinctive sounds may be suitable for passive acoustic monitoring and detection of right whales; however, little is known about the prevalence of these sounds in important right whale habitats, such as the Bay of Fundy. This study investigates the timing and distribution of gunshot sound production on the summer feeding grounds using an array of five marine acoustic recording units deployed in the Bay of Fundy, Canada in mid-summer 2004 and 2005. Gunshot sounds were common, detected on 37 of 38 recording days. Stereotyped gunshot bouts averaged 1.5 h, with some bouts exceeding 7 h in duration with up to seven individuals producing gunshots at any one time. Bouts were more commonly detected in the late afternoon and evening than during the morning hours. Locations of gunshots in bouts indicated that whales producing the sounds were either stationary or showed directional travel, suggesting gunshots have different communication functions depending on behavioral context. These results indicate that gunshots are a common right whale sound produced during the summer months and are an important component in the acoustic communication system of this endangered species.     

Seasonal variability and detection range modeling of baleen whale calls in the Gulf of Alaska, 1999-2002

Five species of large whales, including the blue (Balaenoptera musculus), fin (B. physalus), sei (B. borealis), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), and North Pacific right (Eubalaena japonica), were the target of commercial harvests in the Gulf of Alaska (GoA) during the 19th through mid-20th Centuries. Since this time, there have been a few summer time visual surveys for these species, but no overview of year-round use of these waters by endangered whales primarily because standard visual survey data are difficult and costly. From October 1999-May 2002, moored hydrophones were deployed in six locations in the GoA to record whale calls. Reception of calls from fin, humpback, and blue whales and an unknown source, called Watkins' whale, showed seasonal and geographic variation. Calls were detected more often during the winter than during the summer, suggesting that animals inhabit the GoA year-round. To estimate the distance at which species-diagnostic calls could be heard, parabolic equation propagation loss models for frequencies characteristic of each of each call type were run. Maximum detection ranges in the subarctic North Pacific ranged from 45 to 250 km among three species (fin, humpback, blue), although modeled detection ranges varied greatly with input parameters and choice of ambient noise level.     

Low frequency vocalizations attributed to sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis)

Low frequency (<100 Hz) downsweep vocalizations were repeatedly recorded from ocean gliders east of Cape Cod, MA in May 2005. To identify the species responsible for this call, arrays of acoustic recorders were deployed in this same area during 2006 and 2007. 70 h of collocated visual observations at the center of each array were used to compare the localized occurrence of this call to the occurrence of three baleen whale species: right, humpback, and sei whales. The low frequency call was significantly associated only with the occurrence of sei whales. On average, the call swept from 82 to 34 Hz over 1.4 s and was most often produced as a single call, although pairs and (more rarely) triplets were occasionally detected. Individual calls comprising the pairs were localized to within tens of meters of one another and were more similar to one another than to contemporaneous calls by other whales, suggesting that paired calls may be produced by the same animal. A synthetic kernel was developed to facilitate automatic detection of this call using spectrogram-correlation methods. The optimal kernel missed 14% of calls, and of all the calls that were automatically detected, 15% were false positives.     

Blue and fin whale call source levels and propagation range in the Southern Ocean

Blue (Balaenoptera musculus) and fin whales (B. physalus) produce high-intensity, low-frequency calls, which probably function for communication during mating and feeding. The source levels of blue and fin whale calls off the Western Antarctic Peninsula were calculated using recordings made with calibrated, bottom-moored hydrophones. Blue whales were located up to a range of 200 km using hyperbolic localization and time difference of arrival. The distance to fin whales, estimated using multipath arrivals of their calls, was up to 56 km. The error in range measurements was 3.8 km using hyperbolic localization, and 3.4 km using multipath arrivals. Both species produced high-intensity calls; the average blue whale call source level was 189+/-3 dB re:1 microPa-1 m over 25-29 Hz, and the average fin whale call source level was 189+/-4 dB re:1 microPa-1 m over 15-28 Hz. Blue and fin whale populations in the Southern Ocean have remained at low numbers for decades since they became protected; using source level and detection range from passive acoustic recordings can help in calculating the relative density of calling whales.     

Vocal characteristics of pygmy blue whales and their change over time

Vocal characteristics of pygmy blue whales of the eastern Indian Ocean population were analyzed using data from a hydroacoustic station deployed off Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia as part of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty monitoring network, from two acoustic observatories of the Australian Integrated Marine Observing System, and from individual sea noise loggers deployed in the Perth Canyon. These data have been collected from 2002 to 2010, inclusively. It is shown that the themes of pygmy blue whale songs consist of ether three or two repeating tonal sounds with harmonics. The most intense sound of the tonal theme was estimated to correspond to a source level of 179 ± 2 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m measured for 120 calls from seven different animals. Short-duration calls of impulsive downswept sound from pygmy blue whales were weaker with the source level estimated to vary between 168 to 176 dB. A gradual decrease in the call frequency with a mean rate estimated to be 0.35 ± 0.3 Hz/year was observed over nine years in the frequency of the third harmonic of tonal sound 2 in the whale song theme, which corresponds to a negative trend of about 0.12 Hz/year in the call fundamental frequency.     

St. Lawrence blue whale vocalizations revisited: characterization of calls detected from 1998 to 2001

From 1998 to 2001, 115 h of acoustic recordings were made in the presence of the well-studied St. Lawrence population of blue whales, using a calibrated omnidirectional hydrophone [flat (+/- 3 dB) response from 5 to 800 Hz] suspended at 50 m depth from a surface isolation buoy. The primary field site for this study was the estuary region of the St. Lawrence River (Québec, Canada), with most recordings made between mid-August and late October. During the recordings, detailed field notes were taken on all cetaceans within sight. Characterization of the more than 1000 blue whale calls detected during this study revealed that the St. Lawrence repertoire is much more extensive than previously reported. Three infrasonic (<20 Hz) and three audible range (30-200 Hz) call types were detected, with much time/frequency variation seen within each type. Further variation is seen in the form of call segmentation, which appears (through examination of Lloyd's Mirror interference effects) to be controlled at least partially by the whales. Although St. Lawrence blue whale call characteristics are similar to those of the North Atlantic, comparisons of phrase composition and spacing among studies suggest the possibility of population dialects within the North Atlantic.     

Acoustic detection of North Atlantic right whale contact calls using spectrogram-based statistics

This paper considers the problem of detection of contact calls produced by the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale, Eubalaena glacialis. To reduce computational time, the class of acceptable detectors is constrained by the detectors implemented as a bank of two-dimensional linear FIR filters and using the data spectrogram as the input. The closed form representations for the detectors are derived and the detection performance is compared with that of the generalized likelihood ratio test (GLRT) detector. The test results demonstrate that in the presence of impulsive noise, the spectrogram-based detector using the French hat wavelet as the filter kernel outperforms the GLRT detector and decreases computational time by a factor of 6.     

A framework for the automated real-time detection of short tonal sounds from ocean observatories

Acquisition of acoustic data from ocean observatories is expected to play a key role for the long-term monitoring of marine mammals and anthropogenic noise. It typically requires processing of a large volume of acoustic data and it must rely on automated identification of signals. We present an algorithmic framework for the detection of short tonal sounds (e.g. cetacean calls, anthropogenic pings) intended to act as a first stage in a system for the automated real-time detection, classification, and localisation of acoustic sources. The algorithm was validated under a diversity of scenarios expected at ocean observatories. Using simulated signals that emulate a variety of cetacean call-types, perfect identification of signal position was obtained for signal to noise ratios of ?15 to ?5 dB, depending on the signal-type. Separation of real-world data segments with short tonal sounds (mainly cetacean calls) from segments with other sounds or noise resulted in Area Under the ROC Curve values between 0.96 and 0.98. The algorithm can be used to automatically identify cetacean calls and anthropogenic short tonal sounds much faster than in real-time, thereby reducing the burden put on data transmission, storage, or processing by classification and localisation algorithms.     

Detection range modeling of blue whale calls in Southwestern Indian Ocean

In the Southwestern Indian Ocean, one year of continuous acoustic data from calibrated hydrophones maintained by the International Monitoring System provided data on blue whale calls from two subspecies Antarctic and pygmy blue whales. Using an automatic detection method with a fixed threshold, both call types were detected and received levels were measured for each detected call. By using a parabolic equation loss model configured with the precise characteristics of the biological source, hydroacoustic station, and environment in the study area, distances at which calls could be detected were estimated. These methods were used to define the maximum detection range around each array of hydrophones and the influence of the seasonal variation of the ambient noise and sound velocity on the detection ranges. Results showed that detection ranges were critically dependent on the choice of the biological source’s input parameters, including frequency bandwidth and source level. Over the course of the year, detection distances were different for both subspecies; the pygmy blue whale seemed to be consistently closer to the station than the Antarctic blue whale. The distribution of the estimated distances confirmed the presence of both subspecies of blue whales near the Crozet Islands showing the importance of this sub-Antarctic area for these endangered species, especially during the austral summer feeding season.     

Steady inter and intra-annual decrease in the vocalization frequency of Antarctic blue whales

Time averaged narrow-band noise near 27 Hz produced by vocalizations of many distant Antarctic blue whales intensifies seasonally from early February to late October in the ocean off Australia's South West. Spectral characteristics of long term patterns in this noise band were analyzed using ambient noise data collected at the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty hydroacoustic station off Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia over 2002-2010. Within 7 day averaged noise spectra derived from 4096-point FFT (～0.06 Hz frequency resolution), the -3-dB width of the spectral peak from the upper tone of Antarctic blue whale vocalization was about 0.5 Hz. The spectral frequency peak of this tonal call was regularly but not gradually decreasing over the 9 years of observation from ～27.7 Hz in 2002 to ～26.6 Hz in 2010. The average frequency peak steadily decreased at a greater rate within a season at 0.4-0.5 Hz/season but then in the next year recovered to approximately the mean value of the previous season. A regression analysis showed that the interannual decrease rate of the peak frequency of the upper tonal call was 0.135 ± 0.003 Hz/year over 2002-2010 (R(2) ≈ 0.99). Possible causes of such a decline in the whale vocalization frequency are considered.     

Relationship between visual counts and call detection rates of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in Laguna San Ignacio, Mexico

Daily acoustic calling rates of Eastern North Pacific (ENP) gray whales were measured on 6 days during 1 mo of their 2008 breeding season in the sheltered coastal lagoon of Laguna San Ignacio in Baja California, Mexico. Visual counts of whales determined that the numbers of single animals in the lower lagoon more than tripled over the observation period. All call types showed production peaks in the early morning and evening with minimum rates generally detected in the early afternoon. For four of the five observation days, the daily number of "S1"-type calls increased roughly as the square of the number of the animals in the lower lagoon during both daytime and nighttime. This relationship persisted when raw call counts were adjusted for variations in background noise level, using a simple propagation law derived from empirical measurements. The one observation day that did not fit the square-law relationship occurred during a week when the group size in the lagoon increased rapidly. These results suggest that passive acoustic monitoring does not measure gray whale group size directly but monitors the number of connections in the social network, which rises as roughly M(2)/2 for a group size M.     

Tracking fin whale calls offshore the Galicia Margin, North East Atlantic Ocean

Data recorded during a temporary deployment of ocean bottom seismometers (OBSs) are used in this study to monitor the presence of fin whales around the array. In the summer of 2003, ten OBSs were placed 250 km from the NW coast of Iberia in the Galicia Margin, NE Atlantic Ocean for a period of one month. The recorded data set provided a large variety of signals, including fin whale vocalizations identified by their specific acoustic signature. The use of a dense array of seafloor receivers allowed investigation into the locations and tracks of the signal-generating whales using a seismological hypocentral location code. Individual pulses of different sequences have been chosen to study such tracks. Problems related to the correct identification of pulses, discrimination between direct and multiple arrivals, and the presence of more than one individual have been considered prior to location. Fin calls were concentrated in the last two weeks of the deployment and the locations were spread around the area covered by the array. These results illustrate that, besides its classical seismological aim, deployment of semipermanent seafloor seismic arrays can also provide valuable data for marine mammal behavior studies.     

Directional frequency and recording (DIFAR) sensors in seafloor recorders to locate calling bowhead whales during their fall migration

Bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, migrate west during fall approximately 10-75 km off the north coast of Alaska, passing the petroleum developments around Prudhoe Bay. Oil production operations on an artificial island 5 km offshore create sounds heard by some whales. As part of an effort to assess whether migrating whales deflect farther offshore at times with high industrial noise, an acoustical approach was selected for localizing calling whales. The technique incorporated DIFAR (directional frequency and recording) sonobuoy techniques. An array of 11 DASARs (directional autonomous seafloor acoustic recorders) was built and installed with unit-to-unit separation of 5 km. When two or more DASARs detected the same call, the whale location was determined from the bearing intersections. This article describes the acoustic methods used to determine the locations of the calling bowhead whales and shows the types and precision of the data acquired. Calibration transmissions at GPS-measured times and locations provided measures of the individual DASAR clock drift and directional orientation. The standard error of the bearing measurements at distances of 3-4 km was approximately 1.35 degrees after corrections for gain imbalance in the two directional sensors. During 23 days in 2002, 10,587 bowhead calls were detected and 8383 were localized.