Sulfation behavior of CaO from long-term carbonation/calcination cycles for CO2 capture at FBC temperatures

In this work, SO₂ capture behavior of CaO derived from the dolomite and the limestone during long-term carbonation/calcination cycles for CO₂ capture at fluidized bed combustion (FBC) temperatures was investigated. The cyclic carbonation/calcination of CaO was performed in a dual fixed-bed reactor and then the cycled CaO was sent for sulfation in a thermo-gravimetric analyzer. At the typical FBC temperatures (850–950 °C), SO₂ capture capacity of CaO from the different carbonation/calcination cycles increases with the increasing the temperature. The sulfation conversion of CaO derived from the dolomite (CaO-dolomite) decreases as the carbonation/calcination cycle number increases from 0 to 200. Although the sulfation conversion of CaO derived from the limestone (CaO-limestone) decreases with increasing the cycle number from 0 to 40, its conversion does not always decay with the number of cycles. The sulfation conversion of CaO-limestone shows a slight increase with increasing the cycle number from 40 to 150 and then exhibits a decrease with increasing the cycle number further. The sulfation conversions of CaO-limestone after different cycles are determined by the specific surface area and the volume of macropores >0.2 μm in diameter. The particle size and SO₂ concentration have important effect on sulfation behavior of CaO from various cycles.     

SAXS studies of the thermally-induced fusion of diblock copolymer spheres: formation of hybrid nanoparticles of intermediate size and shape

Dilute dispersions of poly(lauryl methacrylate)–poly(benzyl methacrylate) (PLMA–PBzMA) diblock copolymer spheres (a.k.a. micelles) of differing mean particle diameter were mixed and thermally annealed at 150 °C to produce spherical nanoparticles of intermediate size. The two initial dispersions were prepared via reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) dispersion polymerization of benzyl methacrylate in n-dodecane at 90 °C. Systematic variation of the mean degree of polymerization of the core-forming PBzMA block enabled control over the mean particle diameter: small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analysis indicated that PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₉₇ and PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₂₉₄ formed well-defined, non-interacting spheres at 25 °C with core diameters of 21 ± 2 nm and 48 ± 5 nm, respectively. When heated separately, both types of nanoparticles regained their original dimensions during a 25–150–25 °C thermal cycle. However, the cores of the smaller nanoparticles became appreciably solvated when annealed at 150 °C, whereas the larger nanoparticles remained virtually non-solvated at this temperature. Moreover, heating caused a significant reduction in mean aggregation number for the PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₉₇ nanoparticles, suggesting their partial dissociation at 150 °C. Binary mixtures of PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₉₇ and PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₂₉₄ nanoparticles were then studied over a wide range of compositions. For example, annealing a 1.0% w/w equivolume binary mixture led to the formation of a single population of spheres of intermediate mean diameter (36 ± 4 nm). Thus we hypothesize that the individual PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₉₇ chains interact with the larger PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₂₉₄ nanoparticles to form the hybrid nanoparticles. Time-resolved SAXS studies confirm that the evolution in copolymer morphology occurs on relatively short time scales (within 20 min at 150 °C) and involves weakly anisotropic intermediate species. Moreover, weakly anisotropic nanoparticles can be obtained as a final copolymer morphology over a restricted range of compositions (e.g. for PLMA₃₉–PBzMA₉₇ volume fractions of 0.20–0.35) when heating dilute dispersions of such binary nanoparticle mixtures up to 150 °C. A mechanism involving both chain expulsion/insertion and micelle fusion/fission is proposed to account for these unexpected observations.

Dilute dispersions of poly(lauryl methacrylate)-poly(benzyl methacrylate) diblock copolymer spheres of differing mean diameter are mixed and thermally annealed at 150 °C to produce either spherical or non-spherical nanoparticles of intermediate size.     

Sulfation behavior of white mud from paper manufacture as SO<Subscript>2</Subscript> sorbent at fluidized bed combustion temperatures

The calcination characteristics, sulfation conversion, and sulfation kinetics of a white mud from paper manufacture at fluidized bed combustion temperatures were investigated in a thermogravimetric analyzer. Also, the comparison between the white mud and the limestone in sulfation behavior and microstructure was made. Although the white mud and the limestone both contain lots of CaCO₃, they are different in the alkali metal ions content and microstructure. It results in a marked difference in sulfation behavior between the white mud and the limestone. The CaO derived from white mud achieves the maximum sulfation conversion of 83% at about 940 °C which is 1.7 times higher than that derived from limestone at about 880 °C. The shrinking unreacted core model is appropriate to analyze the sulfation kinetics of the white mud. The chemical reaction activation energy E _a and the activation energy for product layer diffusion E _p for the sulfation of the white mud are 44.94 and 55.61 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively. E _p for the limestone is 2.8 times greater than that for the white mud. The calcined white mud possesses higher surface area than the calcined limestone. Moreover, the calcined white mud has more abundant pores in 4–24 nm range which is almost optimum pore size for sulfation. It indicates that the microstructure of the white mud is beneficial for SO₂ removal.     

SO2 retention by highly cycled modified CaO-based sorbent in calcium looping process

The limestone modified by pyroligneous acid has been proved to have good CO₂ capture behavior in the calcium looping process. In this work, SO₂ retention of the highly cycled modified limestone in the carbonation/calcination cycles was investigated in a thermogravimetric analyzer (TG). The cyclic carbonation/calcination of the modified limestone was performed in a dual fixed-bed reactor and then the cycled modified limestone was sent for sulfation in TG. The effects of sulfation temperature, cycle number, and prolonged carbonation on SO₂ retention of the cycled modified limestone were discussed. The optimum temperature for sulfation of the cycled modified limestone should be in the range of 900–950 °C. The effect of sulfation temperature on SO₂ retention of the modified limestone drops with increasing cycle number. With increasing cycle number from 20 to 100, the sulfation conversion of the cycled modified limestone is stable and can reach ~0.4. The cycled modified limestone exhibits obviously higher SO₂ retention than the cycled raw one for the same number of cycles. The prolonged carbonation increases SO₂ retention of the modified limestone and the raw one after the subsequent cycles. The sulfation conversions of the modified limestone and the raw one at 118 min after 9-h carbonation in the 20th cycle increase 43 and 56 %, respectively. The cycled modified limestone shows a greater SO₂ retention than the cycled raw one after the same prolonged carbonation treatment. The prolonged carbonation increases the pores in 5–20 nm range which is considered the optimum pore size for sulfation of CaO-based sorbent, so it results in an improvement in SO₂ retention of the cycled sorbents.     

Temperature and Inoculum Origin Influence the Performance of Ex-Situ Biological Hydrogen Methanation

The conversion of H₂ into methane can be carried out by microorganisms in a process so-called biomethanation. In ex-situ biomethanation H₂ and CO₂ gas are exogenous to the system. One of the main limitations of the biomethanation process is the low gas-liquid transfer rate and solubility of H₂ which are strongly influenced by the temperature. Hydrogenotrophic methanogens that are responsible for the biomethanation reaction are also very sensitive to temperature variations. The aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of temperature on batch biomethanation process in mixed culture. The performances of mesophilic and thermophilic inocula were assessed at 4 temperatures (24, 35, 55 and 65 °C). A negative impact of the low temperature (24 °C) was observed on microbial kinetics. Although methane production rate was higher at 55 and 65 °C (respectively 290 ± 55 and 309 ± 109 mL CH₄/L.day for the mesophilic inoculum) than at 24 and 35 °C (respectively 156 ± 41 and 253 ± 51 mL CH₄/L.day), the instability of the system substantially increased, likely because of a strong dominance of only Methanothermobacter species. Considering the maximal methane production rates and their stability all along the experiments, an optimal temperature range of 35 °C or 55 °C is recommended to operate ex-situ biomethanation process.     

The effect of the ammonium paratungstate source on the tungsten crystallite size

In an investigation into the effects of CaCl₂ on the sulfation of limestones in a laboratory furnace simulating fluidized-bed coal combustion conditions, small additions of CaCl₂ (<1 mole%) to the limestone prior to calcination were found to increase the extent of sulfation by changing the limestone pore structure. These changes were effected by trace amounts of liquid in the system in a synthetic SO₂/O₂ flue gas at 850°C. At much higher concentrations of CaCl₂, large amounts of a liquid phase are produced, containing a substantial quantity of dissolved CaO and leading to greatly enhanced sulfation when exposed to SO₂/O₂. The use of CaCl₂ additive in fluidized-bed combustion would reduce the quantity of limestones required to meet air pollution standards for SO₂ and also reduce the quantity of solid waste generated.     

Can acyclic conformational control be achieved via a sulfur–fluorine gauche effect?

The gauche conformation of the 1,2-difluoroethane motif is known to involve stabilising hyperconjugative interactions between donor (bonding, σ_C–H) and acceptor (antibonding, σ*C–F) orbitals. This model rationalises the generic conformational preference of F–C_β–C_α–X systems (φ_FCCX ≈ 60°), where X is an electron deficient substituent containing a Period 2 atom. Little is known about the corresponding Period 3 systems, such as sulfur and phosphorus, where multiple oxidation states are possible. Conformational analyses of β-fluorosulfides, -sulfoxides and -sulfones are disclosed here, thus extending the scope of the fluorine gauche effect to the 3rd Period (F–C–C–S(O)_n; φ_FCCS ≈ 60°). Synergy between experiment and computation has revealed that the gauche effect is only pronounced in structures bearing an electropositive vicinal sulfur atom (S⁺–O^–, SO₂).     

CO2 hydrogenation to methanol and dimethyl ether at atmospheric pressure using Cu-Ho-Ga/γ–Al2O3 and Cu-Ho-Ga/ZSM-5: Experimental study and thermodynamic analysis

CO₂ valorization through chemical reactions attracts significant attention due to the mitigation of greenhouse gas effects. This article covers the catalytic hydrogenation of CO₂ to methanol and dimethyl ether using Cu-Ho-Ga containing ZSM-5 and g-Al₂O₃ at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures of 210 °C and 260 °C using a CO₂:H₂ feed ratio of 1:3 and 1:9. In addition, the thermodynamic limitations of methanol and DME formation from CO₂ was investigated at a temperature range of 100–400 °C. Cu-Ho-Ga/g-Al₂O₃ catalyst shows the highest formation rate of methanol (90.3 µmol_CH3OH/g_cat/h ) and DME (13.2 µmol_DME/g_cat/h) as well as the highest selectivity towards methanol and DME (39.9 %) at 210 °C using a CO₂:H₂ 1:9 feed ratio. In both the thermodynamic analysis and reaction results, the higher concentration of H₂ in the feed and lower reaction temperature resulted in higher DME selectivity and lower CO production rates.     

High-Temperature Oxidation Resistance of PDC Coatings in Synthetic Air and Water Vapor Atmospheres

This work is aimed at the development and investigation of the oxidation behavior of ferritic stainless-steel grade AISI 441 and polymer-derived ceramic (PDC) protective coatings. Double-layer coatings of a PDC bond coat below a PDC top coat with glass and ceramic passive fillers’ oxidative resistance were studied at temperatures up to 1000 °C in a flow-through atmosphere of synthetic air and in air saturated with water vapor. Investigation of the oxide products formed at the surface of the samples in synthetic air and water vapor atmospheres, at different temperatures (900, 950, 1000 °C) and exposure times (24, 96 h) was carried out on both uncoated steel and steel coated with selected coatings by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). The Fe, Cr₂O₃, TiO₂, and spinel (Mn,Cr)₃O₄ phases were identified by XRD on oxidized steel substrates in both atmospheres. In the cases of the coated samples, m- ZrO₂, c- ZrO₂, YAG, and crystalline phases (Ba(AlSiO₄)₂–hexacelsian, celsian) were identified. Scratch tests performed on both coating compositions revealed strong adhesion after pyrolysis as well as after oxidation tests in both atmospheres. After testing in the water vapor atmosphere, Cr ions diffused through the bond coat, but no delamination of the coatings was observed.     

The Influence of Nd and Sm on the Structure and Properties of Sol-Gel-Derived TiO2 Powders

TiO₂ nanopowders modified by Nd and Sm were prepared using the sol-gel technique. It was found by XRD analysis that the samples containing Sm are amorphous up to 300 °C, while those with Nd preserve a mixed organic-inorganic amorphous structure at higher temperatures (400 °C). The TiO₂ (rutile) was not detected up to 700 °C in the presence of both modified oxides. TiO₂ (anatase) crystals found at about 400 °C in the Sm-modified sample exhibited an average crystallite size of about 25–30 nm, while doping with Nd resulted in particles of a lower size—5–10 nm. It was established by DTA that organic decomposition is accompanied by significant weight loss occurring in the temperature range 240–350 °C. Photocatalytic tests showed that the samples heated at 500 °C possess photocatalytic activity under UV irradiation toward Malachite green organic dye. Selected compositions exhibited good antimicrobial activity against E. coli K12 and B. subtilis.     

Ribitol in Solution Is an Equilibrium of Asymmetric Conformations

Ribitol (C₅H₁₂O₅), an acyclic sugar alcohol, is present on mammalian α-dystroglycan as a component of O-mannose glycan. In this study, we examine the conformation and dynamics of ribitol by database analysis, experiments, and computational methods. Database analysis reveals that the anti-conformation (180°) is populated at the C3–C4 dihedral angle, while the gauche conformation (±60°) is seen at the C2–C3 dihedral angle. Such conformational asymmetry was born out in a solid-state ¹³C-NMR spectrum of crystalline ribitol, where C1 and C5 signals are unequal. On the other hand, solution ¹³C-NMR has identical chemical shifts for C1 and C5. NMR ³J coupling constants and OH exchange rates suggest that ribitol is an equilibrium of conformations, under the influence of hydrogen bonds and/or steric hinderance. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations allowed us to discuss such a chemically symmetric molecule, pinpointing the presence of asymmetric conformations evidenced by the presence of correlations between C2–C3 and C3–C4 dihedral angles. These findings provide a basis for understanding the dynamic structure of ribitol and the function of ribitol-binding enzymes.     

Intracluster Sulphur Dioxide Oxidation by Sodium Chlorite Anions: A Mass Spectrometric Study

The reactivity of [NaL·ClO₂]⁻ cluster anions (L = ClO_x⁻; x = 0–3) with sulphur dioxide has been investigated in the gas phase by ion–molecule reaction experiments (IMR) performed in an in-house modified Ion Trap mass spectrometer (IT-MS). The kinetic analysis revealed that SO₂ is efficiently oxidised by oxygen-atom (OAT), oxygen-ion (OIT) and double oxygen transfer (DOT) reactions. The main difference from the previously investigated free reactive ClO₂⁻ is the occurrence of intracluster OIT and DOT processes, which are mediated by the different ligands of the chlorite anion. This gas-phase study highlights the importance of studying the intrinsic properties of simple reacting species, with the aim of elucidating the elementary steps of complex processes occurring in solution, such as the oxidation of sulphur dioxide.     

Microwave-Assisted Defibrillation of Microalgae

The first production of defibrillated celluloses from microalgal biomass using acid-free, TEMPO-free and bleach-free hydrothermal microwave processing is reported. Two routes were explored: i. direct microwave process of native microalgae (“standard”), and ii. scCO₂ pre-treatment followed by microwave processing. ScCO₂ was investigated as it is commonly used to extract lipids and generates considerable quantities of spent algal biomass. Defibrillation was evidenced in both cases to afford cellulosic strands, which progressively decreased in their width and length as the microwave processing temperature increased from 160 °C to 220 °C. Lower temperatures revealed aspect ratios similar to microfibrillated cellulose whilst at the highest temperature (220 °C), a mixture of microfibrillated cellulose and nanocrystals were evidenced. XRD studies showed similar patterns to cellulose I but also some unresolved peaks. The crystallinity index (CrI), determined by XRD, increased with increasing microwave processing temperature. The water holding capacity (WHC) of all materials was approximately 4.5 g H₂O/g sample. The materials were able to form partially stable hydrogels, but only with those processed above 200 °C and at a concentration of 3 wt% in water. This unique work provides a new set of materials with potential applications in the packaging, food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.     

Sustainable Diesel from Pyrolysis of Unsaturated Fatty Acid Basic Soaps: The Effect of Temperature on Yield and Product Composition

The production of sustainable diesel without hydrogen addition remains a challenge for low-cost fuel production. In this work, the pyrolysis of unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) basic soaps was studied for the production sustainable diesel (bio-hydrocarbons). UFAs were obtained from palm fatty acids distillate (PFAD), which was purified by the fractional crystallization method. Metal hydroxides were used to make basic soap composed of a Ca, Mg, and Zn mixture with particular composition. The pyrolysis reactions were carried out in a batch reactor at atmospheric pressure and various temperatures from 375 to 475 °C. The liquid products were obtained with the best yield (58.35%) at 425 °C and yield of diesel fraction 53.4%. The fatty acids were not detected in the pyrolysis liquid product. The gas product consisted of carbon dioxide and methane. The liquid products were a mixture of hydrocarbon with carbon chains in the range of C₇ and C₂₀ containing n-alkane, alkene, and iso-alkane.     

A Study of the Effect of Sintering Conditions of Mg0.95Ni0.05Ti3 on Its Physical and Dielectric Properties

Mg_0.95Ni_0.05TiO₃ ceramics were prepared by traditional solid-state route using sintering temperatures between 1300 and 1425 °C and holding time of 2–8 h. The sintered samples were characterized for their phase composition, micro-crystalline structure, unit–cell constant, and dielectric properties. A two-phase combination region was identified over the entire compositional range. The effect of sintering conditions was analyzed for various properties. Both permittivity (ε_r) and Q factor (Q_f) were sensitive to sintering temperatures and holding times, and the optimum performance was found at 1350 °C withholding time of 4 h. The temperature coefficient of resonant frequency (τ_f) in a range from −45.2 to −52 (ppm/°C) and unit–cell constant were not sensitive to both the sintering temperature and holding time. An optimized Q factor of 192,000 (GHz) related with a permittivity (ε_r) of 17.35 and a temperature coefficient (τ_f) of −47 (ppm/°C) was realized for the specimen sintered at 1350 °C withholding time of 4 h. For applications of 5G communication device (filter, antennas, etc.), Mg_0.95Ni_0.05TiO₃ is considered to be a suitable candidate for substrate materials.     

Molecular Characteristics and Antioxidant Activity of Spruce (Picea abies) Hemicelluloses Isolated by Catalytic Oxidative Delignification

Spruce (Picea abies) wood hemicelluloses have been obtained by the noncatalytic and catalytic oxidative delignification in the acetic acid-water-hydrogen peroxide medium in a processing time of 3–4 h and temperatures of 90–100 °C. In the catalytic process, the H₂SO₄, MnSO₄, TiO₂, and (NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄ catalysts have been used. A polysaccharide yield of up to 11.7 wt% has been found. The hemicellulose composition and structure have been studied by a complex of physicochemical methods, including gas and gel permeation chromatography, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The galactose:mannose:glucose:arabinose:xylose monomeric units in a ratio of 5:3:2:1:1 have been identified in the hemicelluloses by gas chromatography. Using gel permeation chromatography, the weight average molar mass M_w of hemicelluloses has been found to attain 47,654 g/mol in noncatalytic delignification and up to 42,793 g/mol in catalytic delignification. Based on the same technique, a method for determining the α and k parameters of the Mark–Kuhn–Houwink equation for hemicelluloses has been developed; it has been established that these parameters change between 0.33–1.01 and 1.57–472.17, respectively, depending on the catalyst concentration and process temperature and time. Moreover, the FTIR spectra of the hemicellulose samples contain all the bands characteristic of heteropolysaccharides, specifically, 1069 cm⁻¹ (C–O–C and C–O–H), 1738 cm⁻¹ (ester C=O), 1375 cm⁻¹ (–C–CH₃), 1243 cm⁻¹ (–C–O–), etc. It has been determined by the thermogravimetric analysis that the hemicelluloses isolated from spruce wood are resistant to heating to temperatures of up to ~100 °C and, upon further heating, start destructing at an increasing rate. The antioxidant activity of the hemicelluloses has been examined using the compounds simulating the 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radicals.     

Pressurized Solvent Extraction of Paulownia Bark Phenolics

Paulownia bark is mostly utilized jointly with wood, but the possibility of a separate valorization through the pressurized extraction of bark bioactives has been assessed. Subcritical water extraction and supercritical CO₂ extraction are green technologies allowing shorter times than conventional solvent extraction under atmospheric shaken conditions. Subcritical water extraction was carried out at temperatures ranging from 140 to 240 °C and supercritical CO₂ extraction was performed at different pressures (10, 20 and 30 MPa), temperatures (35, 45 and 55 °C) and ethanol concentrations (0, 10 and 15% (w/w)). Subcritical water extraction under a non-isothermal operation during heating up to 160 °C (19 min) provided extraction yields up to 30%, and the extracts contained up to 7% total phenolics with an ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) radical scavenging capacity equivalent to 35% the activity of Trolox, whereas at 240 °C, the yield decreased to 20%, but the phenolic content reached 21%, and the antiradical activity was equivalent to 85% of Trolox. Supercritical CO₂ extraction at 30 MPa, 45 °C and 30 min reached a global yield of 2% after 180 min of extraction, but the product showed very low antiradical capacity. Gallic acid, vanillic acid, vanillin and apigenin were the major phenolic compounds found in the extracts.     

New Electroactive Polymers with Electronically Isolated 4,7-Diarylfluorene Chromophores as Positive Charge Transporting Layer Materials for OLEDs

A group of polyethers containing electroactive pendent 4,7-diarylfluorene chromophores have been prepared by the multi-step synthetic route. Full characterization of their structures has been presented. The polymeric materials represent derivatives of high thermal stability with initial thermal degradation temperatures in a range of 392–397 °C. Glass transition temperatures of the amorphous polymers range from 28 °C to 63 °C and depend on structures of the 4,7-diarylfluorene chromophores. Electron photoemission spectra of thin layers of the electroactive derivatives showed ionization potentials in the range of 5.8–6.0 eV. Hole injecting/transporting properties of the prepared polymeric materials were confirmed during formation of organic light-emitting diodes with tris(quinolin-8-olato)aluminium (Alq₃) as a green emitter, which also serves as an electron transporting layer. The device using hole-transporting polymer with electronically isolated 2,7-di(4-biphenyl)fluorene chromophores demonstrated the best overall performance with low turn on voltage of 3 V, high current efficiency exceeding 1.7 cd/A, and with maximum brightness over 200 cd/m². The organic light-emitting diode (OLED) characteristics were measured in non-optimized test devices. The efficiencies could be further improved by an optimization of device structure, formation conditions, and encapsulation of the devices.     

Spectrophotometric analysis of stability of gold nanoparticles during catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol

Spectrophotometric monitoring of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) reduction by sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) using gold nanoparticles (GNPs) as a catalyst has been extensively studied, but the stability of GNPs in terms of change in the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) at different temperatures has not been explored. In the present investigation, our aim was to evaluate the SPR stability of GNPs as a catalyst during the reduction of 4-NP at different elevated temperatures (i.e. 30–60 °C) and sodium borohydride concentrations. Sensitivity of this degradation process toward concentration of GNPs at a range of temperatures is also evaluated. The spectrophotometric results reveal that up to 45 °C, 12 ± 1.5 nm catalyst has a consistent optical density (OD) during the entire 4-NP reduction process, which is related to the surface integrity of catalyst atoms. As the temperature approached 50 °C, the OD gradually decreased and showed a blue shift as the reaction proceeded, which could be related to a decrease in particle size or surface dissolution of gold atoms. The present study may find application in the design of catalysts for the reduction of organic pollutants in industrial wastewater at a range of temperatures.     

Conversion of Phenol and Lignin as Components of Renewable Raw Materials on Pt and Ru-Supported Catalysts

Hydrogenation of phenol in aqueous solutions on Pt-Ni/SiO₂, Pt-Ni-Cr/Al₂O₃, Pt/C, and Ru/C catalysts was studied at temperatures of 150–250 °C and pressures of 40–80 bar. The possibility of hydrogenation of hydrolysis lignin in an aqueous medium in the presence of a Ru/C catalyst is shown. The conversion of hydrolysis lignin and water-soluble sodium lignosulfonate occurs with the formation of a complex mixture of monomeric products: a number of phenols, products of their catalytic hydrogenation (cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone), and hydrogenolysis products (cyclic and aliphatic C₂–C₇ hydrocarbons).