Secondary atomisation produced by single drop vertical impacts onto heated surfaces

The paper reports an experimental analysis of the secondary atomisation produced by the impact of a single drop on a solid heated surface. Different wall temperatures were used to study different boiling regimes. The size of secondary drops produced by the impact was measured by two techniques, namely the phase Doppler anemometry (PDA) and the image analysis technique (IAT); this allowed to extend the measurable size range from 5.5 μm up to few mm. Two impacting walls with different surface roughness were used to show the effect of this parameter on different atomisation regimes. The liquid viscosity was also varied in a limited range by using water–glycerol mixtures. Image analysis allowed also to define the details of the morphology of drop spreading and break-up.     

Evaporation and explosion of liquid drops on a heated surface

The literature pertinent to various aspects of drop evaporation on a heated surface is reviewed. Both the laser shadowgraphic and direct photographic methods are employed to study thermal stability and flow structures in evaporating drops in all heating regimes. It is revealed that four flow regions exist in stable and unstable type drops at low liquid-film type vaporization regime. As the surface temperature is raised, the flow regions reduce to two. In the nucleate-boiling type vaporization regime, the interfacial flow structure changes due to a reduction in the Marangoni number as well as the dielectric constant of the liquid. An evidence of bubble growth in the drops is disclosed. The micro explosion of drops is found to occur in the transition-boiling type heating range. No drop explosion takes place in the spheriodal vaporization regime except when the drop rolls on to a microscratch on the heating surface. It is concluded that the mechanisms for triggering drop explosion include the spontaneous nucleation and growth phenomena and the destabilization of film boiling.     

Experimental investigation of vortex rings impinging on inclined surfaces

Vortex–ring interactions with oblique boundaries were studied experimentally to determine the effects of plate angle on the generation of secondary vorticity, the evolution of the primary vorticity and secondary vorticity as they interact near the boundary, and the associated energy dissipation. Vortex rings were generated using a mechanical piston-cylinder vortex ring generator at jet Reynolds numbers 2,000–4,000 and stroke length to piston diameter ratios (L/D) in the range 0.75–2.0. The plate angle relative to the initial axis of the vortex ring ranged from 3 to 60°. Flow analysis was performed using planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), digital particle image velocimetry (DPIV), and defocusing digital particle tracking velocimetry (DDPTV). Results showed the generation of secondary vorticity at the plate and its subsequent ejection into the fluid. The trajectories of the centers of circulation showed a maximum ejection angle of the secondary vorticity occurring for an angle of incidence of 10°. At lower incidence angles (<20°), the lower portion of the ring, which interacted with the plate first, played an important role in generation of the secondary vorticity and is a key reason for the maximum ejection angle for the secondary vorticity occurring at an incidence angle of 10°. Higher Reynolds number vortex rings resulted in more rapid destabilization of the flow. The three-dimensional DDPTV results showed an arc of secondary vorticity and secondary flow along the sides of the primary vortex ring as it collided with the boundary. Computation of the moments and products of kinetic energy and vorticity magnitude about the centroid of each vortex ring showed increasing asymmetry in the flow as the vortex interaction with the boundary evolved and more rapid dissipation of kinetic energy for higher incidence angles.     

Evaporation of thin liquid droplets on heated surfaces

We carry out combined experimental and theoretical studies of liquid droplet evaporation on heated surfaces in a closed container filled with saturated vapor. The droplets are deposited on an electrically heated thin stainless steel foil. The evolution of droplet shapes is studied by optical methods simultaneously with high-resolution foil temperature measurements using thermochromic liquid crystals. A mathematical model is developed based on the assumptions that the droplet surface has uniform mean curvature and the contact line is pinned during evaporation. Both the dynamics of liquid–vapor interface and the temperature profiles at the foil are shown to be in good agreement with the experimental data.     

Profile and departure size of condensation drops on vertical surfaces

The problem of the equilibrium shape and departure size of two-dimensional dropwise condensation drops on a vertical surface is considered. The equation of the surface of the drop is obtained by minimizing (for a given volume) the total energy of the drop, consisting of surface and gravitational energy, using the techniques of variational calculus. The solution is tractable once the advancing contact angle is known, and is taken as an approximation to the axial meridian profile of a three-dimensional drop. The receding contact angle is obtained as part of the solution. The drop size is specified by imposing its vertical length. Upon increasing this vertical length, a point is reached at which no real solution exists, and this is taken as the departure size of the drop. Comparison with measured departure sizes under various body forces from standard to 100 times earth gravity are good.     

Multiscale simulations and experiments on water jet atomization

Numerical simulation of primary atomization at high Reynolds number is still a challenging problem. In this work a multiscale approach for the numerical simulation of liquid jet primary atomization is applied, using an Eulerian-Lagrangian coupling. In this approach, an Eulerian volume of fluid (VOF) method, where the Reynolds stresses are closed by a Reynolds stress model is applied to model the global spreading of the liquid jet. The formation of the micro-scale droplets, which are usually smaller than the grid spacing in the computational domain, is modelled by an energy-based sub-grid model. Where the disruptive forces (turbulence and surface pressure) of turbulent eddies near the surface of the jet overcome the capillary forces, droplets are released with the local properties of the corresponding eddies. The dynamics of the generated droplets are modelled using Lagrangian particle tracking (LPT). A numerical coupling between the Eulerian and Lagrangian frames is then established via source terms in conservation equations. As a follow-up study to our investigation in Saeedipour et al. (2016a), the present paper aims at modelling drop formation from liquid jets at high Reynolds numbers in the atomization regime and validating the simulation results against in-house experiments. For this purpose, phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA) was used to measure the droplet size and velocity distributions in sprays produced by water jet breakup at different Reynolds numbers in the atomization regime. The spray properties, such as droplet size spectra, local and global Sauter-mean drop sizes and velocity distributions obtained from the simulations are compared with experiment at various locations with very good agreement.     

Heat transfer between a heated plate and an impinging transient diesel spray

An experimental investigation was performed to determine the heat-transfer distribution in the vicinity of a transient diesel spray impinging on a heated flat plate. The spray prior to impingement was characterised in terms of simultaneous droplet sizes and velocities by phase-Doppler anemometry while during its impingement on the plate, which was heated at temperatures between 150–205°C, the instantaneous surface temperature and associated rates of wall heat transfer were monitored by fast response thermocouples. The parameters examined in this work included the distance between the nozzle and the wall surface, the radial distance from the impingement point, the injection frequency, the injected volume and the pre-impingement wall temperature. The results showed that the wall heat transfer rates are dependent on the spray characteristics prior to impingement; the higher the velocity of arrival of the droplet is, the higher the heat transfer. A correlation was thus developed for the instantaneous and spatially-resolved spray/wall heat transfer based on experimentally-determined Nusselt, Reynolds, Prandtl and Weber numbers over a wide range of test conditions.     

Droplet impact dynamics for two liquids impinging on anisotropic superhydrophobic surfaces

Droplet impingement experiments were performed on grooved hydrophobic surfaces with cavity fractions of 0, 80, and 93?% using droplets of water and a 50?%/50?% water/glycerol mixture. The influence of liquid viscosity, cavity fraction, and spreading direction, relative to the surface grooves, is explored qualitatively and quantitatively. The maximum droplet spread diameter, velocity of the rebounding jet, and the time delay between droplet impact and jet emission were characterized for Weber numbers, We, based on droplet impact speed and diameter, up to 500. The unequal shear stresses and contact angles influence the maximum spread diameters in the two primary spread directions. At We?>?100, the ratio of the spread diameter along the direction of the grooves to the spread diameter perpendicular to the grooves increases above unity with increasing We. The maximum droplet spread diameter is compared to recent predictive models, and the data reveal differing behavior for the two fluids considered. The results also reveal the existence of very high relative jet velocities in the range 5????We????15 for water droplets, while such jets were not observed for the more viscous mixture. Further, in the range 115????We????265, the water/glycerol jet formation dynamics are radically different from the water behavior. Most evident is the existence of two-pronged jets, which arise from the anisotropy of the surface and the unequal shear stresses and contact angles that prevail on the surfaces. It is these influences that give rise to differences in the maximum spread diameters in the two primary spread directions. Similar two-pronged jet emission was observed for water over the very narrow range of We from 91 to 96. The issuing jet velocities were also observed to increase with increasing cavity fraction for both fluids and over the entire range of We explored. Lastly, the elapsed time between droplet impact and jet emission decreased with increasing cavity fraction.     

高压水射流冲击煤体的力学特征

以质量守恒与动量守恒定律为基础, 建立了高压水射流冲击煤体的力学模型。运用此模型分析了高压水射流在冲击煤体的过程中, 未破水体、破碎水体、煤体的破碎区与扩孔区的力学特征, 利用严格的力学守恒关系得出高压水射流冲击煤体的简化常微分方程组。将理论计算结果与现场实验和数值模拟结果进行对比, 结果表明:理论计算结果与数值模拟结果和实验结果基本一致。此模型具有明确的力学意义, 且能够反映真实的冲击过程。     

Secondary flows and particle centrifugation in slightly tilted rotating pipes

A theoretical analysis is presented of viscous incompressible laminar flow in a pipe which rotates around an axis held at small angle with respect to its symmetry-axis. Analogous to the results of Barua and Benton [1, 2], solutions in closed-form are given for circulatory flows in the cross-sectional plane of the pipe due to Coriolis forces in combination with Hagen-Poiseuille flow through the pipe. The solutions are used to derive analytical expressions for trajectories of solid or liquid particles entrained in the gas and being subject to centrifugation and the said secondary flows. It is shown that despite centrifugation, particles can be locked into circulatory trajectories thus remaining suspended in the gas flowing through the pipe.     

Experimental study of the atomization of drops of liquid at low Reynolds numbers

Some results of an experimental investigation into the deformation and atomization of drops of liquid at low Reynolds numbers are presented; these were obtained in a specially constructed apparatus in which a low-pressure flow of helium was used in order to reduce the Reynolds numbers. The values of the critical Weber numbers in a state of static deformation were equal to 15–22, in fair agreement with theory.Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, No. 2, pp. 182–186, March–April, 1971.     

Hydrodynamics and boiling phenomena of water droplets impinging on hot solid

The collision of single water droplets with a hot Inconel 625 alloy surface was investigated by a two-directional flash photography technique using two digital still cameras and three flash units. The experiments were conducted under the following conditions: the pre-impact diameters of the droplets ranged from 0.53 to 0.60 mm, the impact velocities ranged from 1.7 m/s to 4.1 m/s, and the solid surface temperatures ranged from 170 °C to 500 °C. When a droplet impacted onto the solid at a temperature of 170 °C, weak boiling was observed at the liquid/solid interface. At temperatures of 200 or 300 °C, numerous vapor bubbles were formed. Numerous secondary droplets then jetted upward from the deforming droplet due to the blowout of the vapor bubbles into the atmosphere. No secondary droplets were observed for a surface temperature of 500 °C at the low-impact Weber numbers (∼30) associated with the impact inertia of the droplets. Experiments using 2.5-mm-diameter droplets were also conducted. The dimensionless collision behaviors of large and small droplets were compared under the same Weber number conditions. At temperatures of less than or equal to 300 °C, the blowout of vapor bubbles occurred at early stages for a large droplet. At a surface temperature of 500 °C, the two dimensionless deformation behaviors of the droplets were very similar to each other.     

Energy balance of droplets impinging onto a wall heated above the Leidenfrost temperature

This work is an experimental study aiming at characterizing the heat transfers induced by the impingement of water droplets (diameter 80–180 μm) on a thin nickel plate heated by electromagnetic induction. The temperature of the rear face of the nickel sample is measured by means of an infrared camera and the heat removed from the wall due to the presence of the droplets is estimated using a semi-analytical inverse heat conduction model. In parallel, the temperature of the droplets is measured using the two-color Laser-Induced Fluorescence thermometry (2cLIF) which has been extended to imagery for the purpose of these experiments. The measurements of the variation in the droplet temperature occurring during an impact allow determining the sensible heat removed by the liquid. Measurements are performed at wall conditions well above the Leidenfrost temperature. Different values of the Weber numbers corresponding to the bouncing and splashing regimes are tested. Comparisons between the heat flux removed from the wall and the sensible heat gained by the liquid allows estimating the heat flux related to liquid evaporation. Results reveal that the respective level of the droplet sensible heat and the heat lost due to liquid vaporization can vary significantly with the droplet sizes and the Weber number.     

Entrainment of fine particles from surfaces by impinging shock waves

 When a shock wave impinges on a surface, it reflects and propagates across the surface at supersonic velocity. The gas is impulsively accelerated by the passing shock wave. The resulting high-speed flow imparts sufficiently strong forces to particles on the surface to overcome strong adhesive forces and entrain the surface-bound particles into the gas. This paper describes an experimental study of the removal of fine particles from a surface by impinging shock waves. The surfaces examined in this study were glass slides on which uniformly sized (8.3 μm diameter), spherical polystyrene particles had been deposited. Shock waves were generated in a small, open-ended shock tube at various heights above and impingement angles to the surface. Particle detachment from the carefully prepared substrates was determined from images of the surfaces recorded before and after shock impingement. A single shock wave effectively cleaned a large surface area. The centerline length of the cleared region was used to characterize the efficacy of shock cleaning. A model based upon the far field solution for a point source surface shock provides a good fit to the clearance length data and yields an estimate to the threshold shock strength for particle removal. Received: 13 November 1997/Accepted: 23 April 1998