Extension and characterization of pressure-sensitive molecular film

Pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) has the potential as a diagnostic tool for pressure measurement in high Knudsen number regime because it works as a so-called “molecular sensor”. However, there are few reports concerning application of PSP to micro-devices, because conventional PSPs are too thick owing to polymer binders. In our previous work, we adopted the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) technique to fabricate the pressure-sensitive molecular film (PSMF) using Pd(II) Mesoporphyrin IX (PdMP), which has pressure sensitivity only in the low pressure range (below 130 Pa). In this study, aiming for pressure measurement under an atmospheric pressure condition, we have constructed four samples of PSMFs composed of Pt(II) Mesoporphyrin IX (PtMP), Pt(II) Mesoporphyrin IX dimethylester (PtMPDME), Pt(II) Protoporphyrin IX (PtPP) and Cu(II) Mesoporphyrin IX dimethylester (CuMPDME) as luminescent molecules. The pressure sensitivity of those PSMFs was measured, and it was clarified that the pressure sensitivity of PSMF-PtMP is the highest among the four samples. Moreover, the temperature dependency of PSMF-PtMP was investigated, and we found that the temperature dependency of PSMF is dominated not by the oxygen diffusion in the layer, but by non-radiative deactivation process of excited luminescent molecules.     

Dynamic surface pressure measurements on a square cylinder with pressure sensitive paint

The dynamic and static surface pressure on a square cylinder during vortex shedding was measured with pressure sensitive paints (PSPs) at three angles of incidence and a Reynolds number of 8.9×10⁴. Oscillations in the phosphorescence intensity of the PSP that occurred at the vortex shedding frequency were observed. From these phosphorescent oscillations, the time-dependent changes in pressure distribution were calculated. This work extends PSP’s useful range to dynamic systems where oscillating pressure changes are on the order of 230 Pa and occur at frequencies in the range of 95–125 Hz.     

Surface pressure field mapping using luminescent coatings

In recent experiments we demonstrated the feasibility of using the oxygen dependence of luminescent molecules for surface pressure measurement in aerodynamic testing. This technique is based on the observation that for many luminescent molecules the light emitted increases as the oxygen partial pressure, and thus the air pressure, the molecules see decreases. In practice the surface to be observed is coated with an oxygen permeable polymer containing a luminescent molecule and illuminated with ultraviolet radiation. The airflow induced surface pressure field is seen as a luminescence intensity distribution which can be measured using quantitative video techniques. Computer processing converts the video data into a map of the surface pressure field. The experiments consisted of evaluating a trial luminescent coating in measuring the static surface pressure field over a two-dimensional NACA-0012 section model airfoil for Mach numbers ranging from 0.3 and 0.66. Comparison of the luminescent coating derived pressures were made to those obtained from conventional pressure taps. The method along with the experiment and its results will be described.     

Treating temperature-sensitivity effects of pressure-sensitive paint measurements

 While pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) is evolving into a viable alternative to conventional pressure taps for surface pressure measurements, the inherent temperature-sensitivity of the coating’s fluorescence intensity is a prominent drawback. Unless the PSP is applied to a temporally and spatially isothermal surface, this inherent temperature-sensitivity effect severely limits the accuracy of the two-dimensional pressure distribution obtained from the coating. In this study, the pressure- and temperature-sensitivity effects of three commonly used PSPs and two temperature-sensitive paints (TSPs) are evaluated over pressure and temperature ranges found in many compressible flow experiments. In addition, four PSP data reduction methods are compared by applying PSP to a transverse jet-in-crossflow experiment. Each data reduction method encompasses a different degree of temperature correction. Conventional pressure tap measurements are used to evaluate the accuracy of each method. Received: 27 January 1997/Accepted: 15 July 1997     

Application of novel pressure-sensitive paint formulations for the surface flow mapping of high-speed jets

The principle of pressure-sensitive paints (PSPs) is based upon excitation of the luminophore molecules at a certain wavelength and the emission of this absorbed energy at a higher wavelength. By isolating these two wavelengths we insure that the results obtained are not affected by any background radiation. Various international research groups, such as: the Central Aero-Hydrodynamic Institute (Russia), the University of Washington, NASA Ames, Boeing and McDonnell Douglas (USA), have developed their PSP formulations and some are commercially available.Two paints, which have been developed in-house at the Aero-Physics Laboratory (APL) at the University of Manchester, are studied here. One formulation uses hydrochloric acid (PSP1–HCl) and the other acetone as the solvent (PSP2–Ace). The current study employs the well known schlieren photography technique together with the relatively new PSP method, with comparison to discrete measurements, to examine the flow through a two-dimensional air-ejector system and examines the efficacy of the PSP formulations in providing an accurate global pressure field of the aforementioned setup. Detailed analysis of the errors and drawbacks involved in PSP measurements along with possible solutions to overcome them are also presented. Fully expanded jet Mach numbers in the range of 0.52 ? M_j ? 1.36 were examined.     

过渡区气体微尺度流动的格子Boltzmann模拟

采用格子Boltzmann方法(LBM)对过渡区内的微尺度气体流动进行了模拟研究. 在已有滑移区微流动LBM模型中引入Knudsen层速度修正,选取合适的修正函数表达式并依据动理论确定了可调参数的合理取值. 在边界条件的处理格式上,采用了适合过渡区模拟的高阶滑移边界的替代格式来捕捉过渡区微流动的滑移速度,避免了直接求解高阶速度导数项的数值困难. 通过对两类不同的微流动进行模拟的结果表明:与数值解吻合得较好,尤其是对Kn>0.5微流动滑移速度的预测,与已有LBM的模拟结果相比有明显的提高.      

Theoretical and numerical investigations of TAP experiments: new approaches for variable pressure conditions

Temporal analysis of products (“TAP”, see Gleaves et al. in Catal Rev Sci Eng 30:49, 1988) is a valuable tool for characterisation of porous catalytic structures. Established TAP-modelling requires a spatially constant diffusion coefficient and neglect convective flows, which is only valid in Knudsen diffusion regime. A new theoretical model is developed for estimating the number of molecules per pulse to stay in Knudsen diffusion regime under any conditions and at any time. Moreover a new methodology for generating a full three-dimensional geometrical representation of beds is presented and used for numerical simulations. In computational fluid dynamics software (ANSYS CFX^® version 14) a transient diffusive transport equation with time-dependent inlet boundary conditions is solved. Three different pellet diameters were investigated with 1E+18 molecules per pulse, which is higher than the limit from the theoretical calculation (about 1E+15). From this results, the distance from inlet can be calculated where the theoretical pressure limit (Kn = 2) is obtained, i.e., from this point to the end of reactor, Knudsen regime can be assumed.     

New lattice Boltzmann model for the compressible Navier-Stokes equations

We have developed a fundamentally new type of simple lattice Boltzmann (LB) model for the compressible Navier-Stokes equations based on the kinetic system proposed by Sone. The model uses the kinetic equation of free-molecular type in the streaming process and modifies the distribution function to its Chapman-Enskog type at each time step. Compared with the current LB models, the proposed model is superior in the following two points: (i) there are no inherent errors associated with the Knudsen number; (ii) any flow parameters, including three transport coefficients, can be chosen freely according to our convenience. Numerical tests and error estimates confirm the above statements.     

Pressure sensitive paint demonstrates relationship between ejector wall pressure and aerodynamic performance

 This paper provides an example of the application of Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP) to complex internal suspersonic flows and demonstrates the relationship between ejector wall pressure and aerodynamic performance. Details of such jet mixer-ejector nozzles are relevant to jet noise reduction programs. Several ejector configurations with straight, convergent, and divergent side walls were used in our experiments. The side-wall that was painted with PSP was also instrumented with an array of 156 pressure taps connected to Electronically Scanned Pressure (ESP) modules, enabling simultaneous measurement of “true” reference pressures. The PSP results agreed very well with the “true” reference pressures and also provided a detailed map of the complicated pressure patterns that could not be detected using the pressure taps. Finally, we also demonstrated the direct relationship between ejector side-wall pressure distribution and ejector performance characteristics such as exit mean flow uniformity, pumping, and thrust augmentation. Received: 16 December 1997/Accepted: 21 August 1998     

压敏漆测压在低速射流撞击壁面的应用研究

压敏漆(pressure sensitive paint,PSP)测压是一种基于发光分子氧猝灭效应的测压技术,与传统测压方式相比具有成本小、空间分辨率高等特点.实验搭建了压敏漆测压硬件平台,开发了数据处理软件系统.利用驻点处的压强与灰度关系拟合了标定曲线,研究了低速射流撞击平板表面的压强分布特性,分析了喷管距离壁面高度和雷诺数的影响.结果表明,当喷管高度h/d<6时,压强分布曲线的峰值压强和半宽度随喷管高度变化基本不变;当喷管高度h/d>6时,随着高度的增大,峰值压强线性减小,半宽度线性增加.采用峰值压强和半宽度对不同喷管高度的压强分布曲线进行无量纲化,压强分布曲线呈现自相似特性.进一步研究表明,在实验雷诺数范围内,压强分布受雷诺数影响较小.      

Application of pressure-sensitive paint for determination of the pressure field and calculation of the forces and moments of models in a wind tunnel

The visualization and measurements of aerodynamic effects on a 3D aircraft model were conducted using an optical pressure measurement system, based on the pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) technique. PSP technology provides a good understanding of the flow around the wind tunnel model. The PSP technique can be used to carry out absolute pressure measurements on a surface of the model and to determine additional aerodynamic data using scientific-grade cameras and image processing techniques. Surface pressures from the top, bottom, left, and right viewing directions were obtained using the DLR-PSP system on the entire surface, which can be observed by eight CCD cameras. Finally, the measured pressures can be integrated to calculate the forces and moments of the complete model, or parts thereof.     

Application of fast-responding pressure-sensitive paint to a hemispherical dome in unsteady transonic flow

The current work focuses on the development and application of fast-responding polymer/ceramic pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) as an advanced surface pressure measurement technique for unsteady flow fields in large-scale wind tunnels. To demonstrate the unsteady PSP technique, the unsteady surface pressure distribution over a hemispherical dome placed in the United States Air Force Research Laboratory’s Trisonic Gasdynamics Facility (TGF) was studied by phase-locking to the characteristic frequency in the flow caused by an unsteady separated shear layer shed from the dome. The wind tunnel was operated at stagnation pressures of 23.92 and 71.84 kPa, with the test section flow at Mach 0.6. Under the two operating conditions, the predominant shear layer frequency was measured to be 272 and 400 Hz, respectively. The quasi-periodic shear layer frequency enabled a phase-averaged method to be employed for capturing the unsteady shock motion on the hemisphere. Unsteady pressure data resulting from this technique are shown to correlate well with measurements acquired by conventional measurement techniques. Measurement uncertainty in the phase-averaging technique will be discussed. To address measurement uncertainties from temperature sensitivity and model movement, a new implementation of an AC-coupled data representation is offered.     

基于激光干涉测量的液体高脉冲压力校准

针对压电式高压传感器等的幅值灵敏度脉冲压力校准中的量值溯源问题,将一种基于牛顿第二定律的液体脉冲压力激光干涉测量方法用于落锤式液体高脉冲压力校准装置。通过质量块的动力学建模以及激光干涉测量质量块的加速度,得到脉冲压力幅值大小,使脉冲压力幅值能溯源到时间、长度与质量等基本量。通过对压力和加速度分布不均、摩擦力等影响进行理论与实验分析,压电式压力传感器幅值灵敏度校准不确定度得到了完整评估。激光干涉法液体脉冲压力校准装置压力幅值覆盖（10~500）MPa,扩展不确定度在1.8%以内。     

Pressure-sensitive paint in aerodynamic testing

Pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) is a relatively new aerodynamic measurement tool with the unique capability of providing a field measurement of pressure over a test surface. An introductory review of this technology is presented, which is confined to the application of the PSP method to aircraft development wind tunnel testing. This is at present the primary application area and thus the focus of research on the use of the method, and is the authors' own area of research. Described are PSP fundamentals, the various elements comprising PSP technology, and current limitations and considerations in applying this technology. Experimental results are presented to illustrate the present capability of the method. The few publications currently available on this subject in the open literature are also referenced.     

Mesoscopic Simulation of Rarefied Flow in Narrow Channels and Porous Media

Rarefied gas flow in channels and computer-aided reconstructions of porous media is simulated using the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method and a modified lattice-Boltzmann (LB) method that can account for rarefaction effects. An increase of two orders of magnitude was noted for the gas permeability as the Knudsen number increased from 0.1 to 10. It was found that incorporation of a Bosanquet expression for the viscosity in the dusty gas flux equations leads to the recovery of the well known Klinkenberg expression for the gas permeability, revealing an explicit relation of the, thus far empirical, permeability correction factor to the fluid and structure properties. The expression for the effective gas viscosity in the transition flow regime is also incorporated in the LB method, which is then validated against the DSMC method by comparing predictions for the velocity profiles in straight channels over the entire transition flow regime. The new LB method offers the additional advantages of simplicity in the code implementation and great savings in computational time and memory compared to the DSMC method. It is shown that the rough adjustment of a single parameter suffices to make the LB method suitable for the reliable prediction of the gas permeability in porous media over the entire transition flow regime.     

The hydrodynamic force and torque on a bounded sphere in Poiseuille flow

The lattice Boltzmann (LB) method is used to study the hydrodynamic force and torque acting on a sphere held stationary between parallel plates in pressure‐driven flow. This and associated flow configurations are explored in this paper. LB results are in excellent agreement with existing theory and numerical results for simple pressure‐driven flow between parallel plates, for flow through a periodic medium of spheres [Zick AA, Homsy GM. Stokes flow through periodic arrays of spheres. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1982; 115: 13], and for the force and torque acting on a sphere held fixed at the quarter vertical position in a pressure‐driven flow between parallel plates. In the latter case, LB calculations reveal a screening effect caused by neighboring periodic images of the test sphere. It is shown that the test sphere is hydrodynamically decoupled from its periodic images when separated by approximately 30 sphere radii. LB results for force and torque as a function of sphere height and flow cell height are also reported. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

微尺度气体流动

了解微尺度气体流动特点是微机电系统设计和优化的基础.有关的研究可以上溯到20世纪初Knudsen的平面槽道流动质量流量的测量和Millikan的小球阻力系数的测量,实验结果揭示了稀薄气体效应即尺度效应对气体运动的重要影响.由于流动特征长度很小,微尺度气流经常处于滑流区甚至过渡领域,流动的相似参数为Knudsen数和Mach数.因此可以考虑利用相似准则,通过增大几何尺寸、减小压力的途径,解决微机电系统实验观测遇到的困难.为解决直接模拟Monte Carlo方法分析微机电系统中低速稀薄气流遇到的统计涨落困难,我们提出了信息保存法(IP),该方法能够有效克服统计散布,并已成功用于多种微尺度气流.      

Accuracy of correlation-based image registration for pressure-sensitive paint

The accuracy of correlation-based image registration (CBIR) in the analysis of pressure-sensitive paints (PSP) was investigated. CBIR has been developed to perform accurate image registration without the need for control points, even for model motions containing nonlinear local deformations. In the present study, the influence of displacement errors and their sensitivity on the accuracy of pressure measurement was examined by uncertainty analysis. The error sources in image registration were classified and several factors affecting the accuracy of image registration were examined. The performances of image registration were evaluated under several artificial model motions. Local intensity variations due to speckles, which enhance the image correlation in CBIR, may act as a source of image noise. The local pressure sensitivity in the presence and absence of speckles was investigated through pixel-by-pixel calibration. A spatial filtering was employed to reduce the local intensity variations. It was found that application of a median filter decreased the fluctuations in the local pressure sensitivity and significantly reduced the sensitivity of the intensity error to misregistration.     

不同金属基体上MoS2纳米微粒LB膜摩擦学行为研究

研究了Ｃｕ、Ａｇ及Ａｕ等金属基体上二烷基二硫代磷酸修饰ＭｏＳ２纳米微粒ＬＢ膜的摩擦学性能,用红外显微镜分析ＬＢ膜在摩擦过程中的结构变化,用电子探针分析考察不同金属基体上ＬＢ膜的磨痕形貌．结果表明：ＤＤＰ修饰ＭｏＳ２纳米微粒ＬＢ膜可有效降低Ａｇ和Ｃｕ与ＧＣｒ１５钢对摩时的摩擦系数;该ＬＢ膜极易向对偶转移并在摩擦过程中发生摩擦化学变化,主要包括无序化转变及修饰剂的部分分解;无机纳米核起主要承载和抗磨作用．Ｃｕ基体上的ＬＢ膜耐磨寿命较Ａｇ基体上ＬＢ膜的耐磨寿命高１００倍,这主要因ＬＢ膜与Ａｇ基体的结合较弱．