Suspension of layered particles: an optimum electrorheological fluid for d.c. applications

 A comparison is made between two types of solid particles used in electrorheological fluids: particles with homogeneous electrical properties versus layered particles with a semi-conducting core surrounded by an outer layer of lower conductivity. Rheological measurements of these suspensions under steady shear and d.c. electric field show that the layered particle system produces the same yield stress but with a substantially reduced electric current. X-ray spectroscopic analysis confirms that these particles have a thin layer of SiO_x on the outer surface which causes the reduction in conductivity. Measurement of the dielectric permittivity followed by analysis using the Maxwell-Wagner model of polarization indicates that the conductivity of the outer layer is about 0.62 times that of the core region. Received: 13 January 1999 Accepted: 26 July 1999     

Viscoelasticity of a dielectric fluid in nonuniform electric fields generated by electrodes with flocked fabrics

The rheological behavior of a dielectric fluid is studied in nonuniform electric fields which are generated by an electrode covered with flocked fabrics. Although no electrorheological (ER) effects are observed in uniform fields between metal electrodes with smooth surfaces, striking increases in viscosity and elastic response are induced by the electrode with flocked fabrics. The presence of flocked fabrics does not have a significant effect on the fluid rheology without electric fields. The ER behavior and current density are influenced by the fiber length even at a constant field strength. When a very small amount of fine particles is introduced in the electrified fluid without shear, we can see the rapid and large-scale motion of particles between the tips of fibers and plate electrode. In high DC fields, the Coulomb force acting on a free charge often gives rise to the secondary motion of fluid. The local motion of fluid in high electric fields is refereed to as electrohydrodynamic (EHD) convection. The additional energy may be required to change the periodic patterns of EHD convection by forced shear. Therefore, the ER effect demonstrated by the modification of electrode with flocked fabrics can be attributed to a combined effect of EHD convection and external shear. Received: 10 March 1998 Accepted: 1 June 1998     

钛酸钙系电流变液在直流电场下损耗模量的研究

研究了直流电场下钛酸钙系电流变液在动态振荡剪切模式下损耗模量的变化。用流变仪测试了不同颗粒体积分数材料在不同的温度和电场下损耗模量随应变的关系曲线。讨论了颗粒体积分数、温度、电场强度以及频率对材料损耗模量的影响。以理论推导和试验数据拟合的方法给出了损耗模量与颗粒体积分数、振荡频率、温度以及电场强度等参数的半经验数学关系式。理论值对比试验结果表明,本文损耗模量表达式与试验结果符合较好,可以用于预测直流电场下钛酸钙系电流变液在动态振荡剪切模式下颗粒体积分数、温度、电场强度、频率和剪切应变对损耗模量的影响。     

一种力-电协同驱动的细胞微流控培养腔理论模型

细胞培养液在微流控生物反应器中受到外界物理场（如压力梯度或者电场）作用流动而产生流体剪应力,并进一步刺激种子细胞调控其内部基因的表达,从而促进细胞的分化和生长,这个过程在自然生命组织内的微管中亦是如此。考虑到细胞培养微腔隙中液体流动行为很难实验量化测定,理论建模分析是目前可行的研究手段。因此建立了矩形截面的细胞微流控培养腔理论模型,将外部的物理驱动场（压力梯度与电场）与培养腔内液体的流速、切应力和流率联系起来,分别得到了压力梯度驱动（Pressure gradient driven,PGD）、电场驱动（Electric field driven,EFD）及力-电协同驱动（Pressure-electricity synergic driven,P-ESD）三种驱动方式下的液体流动理论模型。结果表明该理论模型与现有的实验结果基本一致,具体地:力-电协同作用下的解答为压力梯度驱动和电场驱动结果的叠加。细胞培养腔内的流体流速、剪应力及流率幅值均正比于外部物理场强幅值,但随着压力梯度驱动载荷频率的增大而减小,随着电场驱动频率的变化不明显。在压力梯度驱动作用下,细胞贴壁处的切应力随着腔高的增大而线性增大,流率则随着腔高的增大而非线性增大,而电场驱动下的结果不受腔高的影响。生理范围内的温度场变化对压力和电场驱动的结果影响不大。另外,在引起细胞响应的流体切应力水平,电场驱动能提供较大的切应力幅值而压力梯度驱动则能提供较大的流率幅值。该理论模型的建立为细胞微流控生物反应器实验系统的设计及参数优化提供理论参考,同时也为力-电刺激细胞生长、分化机理的研究的提供基础。      

E-FiRST: Electric field responsive shear thickening fluids

A novel electrorheological (ER) effect is presented where the application of an electric field, orthogonal to the vorticity-flow plane, increases the critical hydrodynamic stress required to shear thicken concentrated, colloidal dispersions (the E-FiRST effect). The shear thickening behavior of a Brownian charge stabilized dispersion (226 nm silica in 4-methylcyclohexanol at 53, 50. and 41 vol.%) is studied in the presence of an electric field as a function of the field strength and coupling parameter ( ß) where the latter is a function of a.c. field frequency due to diffusion limitations on the polarization of the particles' double layer. A mechanism is proposed whereby the applied electric field suppresses the formation of the self-organized hydrocluster microstructure responsible for shear thickening, thus delaying the onset of shear thickening to higher applied shear stresses. A Mason-number type scaling law is found to scale the effect, which supports the proposed mechanism.     

Rheology of shear thickening suspensions and the effects of wall slip in torsional flow

The rheological characterisation of concentrated shear thickening materials suspensions is challenging, as complicated and occasionally discontinuous rheograms are produced. Wall slip is often apparent and when combined with a shear thickening fluid the usual means of calculating rim shear stress in torsional flow is inaccurate due to a more complex flow field. As the flow is no longer “controlled”, a rheological model must be assumed and the wall boundary conditions are redefined to allow for slip. A technique is described where, by examining the angular velocity response in very low torque experiments, it is possible to indirectly measure the wall slip velocity. The suspension is then tested at higher applied torques and different rheometer gaps. The results are integrated numerically to produce shear stress and shear rate values. This enables the measurement of true suspension bulk flow properties and wall slip velocity, with simple rheological models describing the observed complex rheograms.     

A fluid flow model in the lacunar-canalicular system under the pressure gradient and electrical field driven loads

The lacunar-canalicular system (LCS) is acknowledged to directly participate in bone tissue remodeling. The fluid flow in the LCS is synergic driven by the pressure gradient and electric field loads due to the electro-mechanical properties of bone. In this paper, an idealized annulus Maxwell fluid flow model in bone canaliculus is established, and the analytical solutions of the fluid velocity, the fluid shear stress, and the fluid flow rate are obtained. The results of the fluid flow under pressure gradient driven (PGD), electric field driven (EFD), and pressure-electricity synergic driven (P-ESD) patterns are compared and discussed. The effects of the diameter of canaliculi and osteocyte processes are evaluated. The results show that the P-ESD pattern can combine the regulatory advantages of single PGD and EFD patterns, and the osteocyte process surface can feel a relatively uniform shear stress distribution. As the bone canalicular inner radius increases, the produced shear stress under the PGD or P-ESD pattern increases slightly but changes little under the EFD pattern. The increase in the viscosity makes the flow slow down but does not affect the fluid shear stress (FSS) on the canalicular inner wall and osteocyte process surface. The increase in the high-valent ions does not affect the flow velocity and the flow rate, but the FSS on the canalicular inner wall and osteocyte process surface increases linearly. In this study, the results show that the shear stress sensed by the osteocyte process under the P-ESD pattern can be regulated by changing the pressure gradient and the intensity of electric field, as well as the parameters of the annulus fluid and the canaliculus size, which is helpful for the osteocyte mechanical responses. The established model provides a basis for the study of the mechanisms of electro-mechanical signals stimulating bone tissue (cells) growth.

     

体积分数对基于沸石和硅油的悬浮液的电流变性能的影响

用 HAAKE RV2 0型流变仪 ,在不同外加电场强度和不同颗粒体积分数下测试了基于沸石和硅油的电流变液的剪切应力变化 .结果表明 :随着外加电场强度升高 ,电流变液的零电场粘度急剧增加 ,电流变液的剪切屈服应力增加 ;随着电流变液中沸石颗粒体积分数升高 ,电流变液的剪切屈服强度急剧上升 .这种变化可以用颗粒间作用力与颗粒间距的关系、单位面积的颗粒链数目变化以及多体作用对电流变液性能的影响来解释     

Mode-III interface edge crack between two bonded quarter-planes of dissimilar piezoelectric materials

Summary  The problem of an interface edge crack between two bonded quarter-planes of dissimilar piezoelectric materials is considered under the conditions of anti-plane shear and in-plane electric loading. The crack surfaces are assumed to be impermeable to the electric field. An integral transform technique is employed to reduce the problem under consideration to dual integral equations. By solving the resulting dual integral equations, the intensity factors of the stress and the electric displacement and the energy release rate as well as the crack sliding displacement and the electric voltage across the crack surfaces are obtained in explicit form for the case of concentrated forces and free charges at the crack surfaces and at the boundary. The derived results can be taken as fundamental solutions which can be superposed to model more realistic problems. Received 10 November 2000; accepted for publication 28 March 2001     

A magnetoelectric screw dislocation interacting with a circular layered inclusion

Within the framework of the linear theory of magnetoelectroelasticity, the problem of a circular layered inclusion interacting with a generalized screw dislocation under remote anti-plane shear stress and in-plane magnetoelectric loads is investigated in this paper. The generalized dislocation can be located either in the matrix or in the circular layered inclusion. The layers are coaxial cylinders of annular cross-sections with arbitrary radii and different material properties. Using complex variable theory and the alternating technique, the solution of the present problem is expressed in terms of the solution of the corresponding homogeneous medium problem subjected to the same loading. Some numerical results are provided to investigate the influence of material combinations on the shear stress, electric field, magnetic and image force. These solutions can be used as Green's functions for the analysis of the corresponding magnetoelectric crack problem.     

Rheology and structure of a suspension of particles subjected to Quincke rotation

We report some experimental results that show that, if the particles of a suspension rotate faster than the surrounding liquid, the apparent viscosity is lessened. The increase of the particles’ spin rate is induced by Quincke rotation, which is the spontaneous rotation of an insulating particle immersed in a slightly conducting liquid when submitted to a high enough DC electric field. We study the flow of such a suspension with internal spin rate in various geometries, and we observe, depending on the values of the shear rate and of the electric field, that the suspension can form a layered structure or present a decomposition into two phases. To predict the appearance of the layered structure, we propose to introduce a modified Mason number that takes into account the rotation of the particles. Paper was presented at the 3rd Annual Rheology Conference, AERC 2006, April 27–29 2006, Crete, Greece.     

Phase structure change and ER effect in liquid crystalline polymer/dimethylsiloxane blends

The mechanism of the electrorheological (ER) effect in two types of liquid crystalline polymer (LCP)/dimethylsiloxane (DMS) blends was investigated by rheological measurements and by structure observation under electric field and shear flow. The results show that the phase structures of these immiscible blends can be categorized into slipping (low viscosity) and non-slipping (high viscosity) states. In the non-slipping state, higher viscosity LCP domains connect the electrodes. In the slipping state, on the other hand, LCP domains do not connect the electrodes and the shear is mainly confined in the lower viscosity DMS domains. The ER effect (electrically induced viscosity increase) originates from the electrically induced slipping to non-slipping transition. In one of the blends, the ER effect occurs only at high shear rate, since this blend is in non-slipping state even under no field if the shear rate is low. Received: 29 April 1997 Accepted: 3 November 1997     

Peculiar features in the rheological behavior of electrorheological suspensions

Studies have been made of concentrated (up to 60%) diatomite suspensions in transformer oil, the structure and theological properties of which depend on an applied electric field. Studies have been conducted of steady-state and transient regimes of straining involving continuous and periodic shear. The structure in such suspensions is formed in the presence of an electric field of 10^–3 –10² duration. The suspensions under continuous stationary strain behave as non-Newtonian fluids with a yield stress dependent on electric intensity. Under periodic deformation conditions the test suspensions exhibit elasticity which abruptly diminishes with increasing deformation amplitude.     

Exact three-dimensional interface stress and electrode-effect analysis of multilayer piezoelectric transducers under torsion

In this paper, exact three-dimensional analysis for torsion of multilayer piezoelectric transducers is presented to highlight the remarkable effects of electrode and size effects on interface stresses and deformation. A generalized formulation is introduced for torsion of an arbitrarily layered cross section. In order to reach an advanced and better device, multilayer piezoelectric materials with different properties are formulated while axis of torsion and the polarization axes of each layer make different orientations with respect to each other. An exact formulation for n-layer piezoelectric device with rectangular cross section is presented to compensate considerable deviation of previous studies’ results from exact solution due to the assumption of linear distribution for the electric potential. In order to improve the performance of the transducers, being utilized in industry, several case studies are presented in order to investigate the influence of different parameters, e.g. thickness and material properties of electrodes over shear and peel stresses. Besides, a correction factor is introduced to completely compensate the effect of ignoring electrodes.     

The influence of multiple cracks on tensile and compressive buckling of shear deformable beams

In this work the static stability of the uniform Timoshenko column in presence of multiple cracks, subjected to tensile or compressive loads, is analyzed. The governing differential equations are formulated by modeling the cracks as concentrated reductions of the flexural stiffness, accomplished by the use of Dirac’s delta distributions. The adopted model has allowed the derivation of the exact buckling modes and the corresponding buckling load equations of the Timoshenko multi-cracked column, as a function of four integration constant only, which are derived simply by enforcing the end boundary conditions, irrespective of the number of concentrated damage. Since shear deformability has been taken into account, the buckling load equation allows capturing both compressive and tensile buckling. The latter phenomenon has been recently investigated with reference to rubber bearing isolators, modeled as short beams, but it has been shown to occur also in slender beams characterized by high distributed shear deformation, like composite and layered beams. The influence of multiple concentrated cracks on the stability of shear deformable beams, particularly under the action of tensile loads, has never been assessed in the literature and is here addressed on the basis of an extensive parametric analysis. All the reported results have been compared with the Euler multi-cracked column in order to highlight its limits of applicability.     

电流变体粘弹性能的实验研究

电流变体是智能材料与结构中一种重要的致动器材料。本文对电流变体在电场作用下的粘弹性特性进行了实验研究。使用旋转式流变仪对表征流体粘性的蠕变特性进行了测试。同时,对电流变体进行了强制振荡试验,测试了流体在不同应力幅值、应力频率下的剪切模量主变化,得到了电流变体的复剪切模量以及剪切存储模量、损耗模量承承中电场变化的规律。     

Dynamic responses of electrorheological fluid in steady pressure flow

The dynamic responses of the electrorheological fluid in steady pressure flow to stepwise electric fields are investigated experimentally. First of all, the transient responses of the ER fluid under various electric field strengths and flow velocities are obtained from the pressure behaviors in the flow channel with two parallel-plate electrodes. The response times are exponentially decreased with the increase of the flow velocity and the decrease of the electric field strength. Next, the relationship between the dynamic pressure behaviors of the ER fluid and the cluster structure formation processes of the ER particles is investigated using the flow visualization technique. Through the comparison study, it is verified that the dynamic responses of the ER fluid in the flow mode are mainly caused by the cluster densification process in the competition of the electric field-induced particle attraction and the hydrodynamic force, unlike those in the shear mode determined by the particle aggregation process.     

Electrorheology of dielectric liquids

Dielectric liquids that show striking electrorheological (ER) effects are formulated by controlling the conductivity. Although the viscosity is increased on the application of a d.c. field, the flow of electrified fluids is Newtonian in the plain electrodes with smooth surfaces. When the liquids are sandwiched between the electrodes with flocked fabrics, the viscosity behavior is converted from Newtonian to shear-thinning flow. In electric fields, the convective flow is induced over the system due to the electrohydrodynamic(EHD) effect. The interactions between EHD convection and external shear give rise to the additional energy dissipation and in turn the increase in viscosity. The ER effects of simple liquids are very attractive in application to new fluid devices.     

Numerical simulation of pulsatile non-Newtonian flow in the carotid artery bifurcation

Both clinical and post mortem studies indicate that, in humans, the carotid sinus of the carotid artery bifurcation is one of the favored sites for the genesis and development of atherosclerotic lesions. Hemodynamic factors have been suggested to be important in atherogenesis. To understand the correlation between atherogenesis and fluid dynamics in the carotid sinus, the blood flow in artery was simulated numerically. In those studies, the property of blood was treated as an incompressible, Newtonian fluid. In fact, however, the blood is a complicated non-Newtonian fluid with shear thinning and viscoelastic properties, especially when the shear rate is low. A variety of non-Newtonian models have been applied in the numerical studies. Among them, the Casson equation was widely used. However, the Casson equation agrees well only when the shear rate is less than 10 s-1. The flow field of the carotid bifurcation usually covers a wide range of shear rate. We therefore believe that it may not be sufficient to describe the property of blood only using the Casson equation in the whole flow field of the carotid bifurcation. In the present study, three different blood constitutive models, namely, the Newtonian, the Casson and the hybrid fluid constitutive models were used in the flow simulation of the human carotid bifurcation. The results were compared among the three models. The results showed that the Newtonian model and the hybrid model had verysimilar distributions of the axial velocity, secondary flow and wall shear stress, but the Casson model resulted in significant differences in these distributions from the other two models. This study suggests that it is not appropriate to only use the Casson equation to simulate the whole flow field of the carotid bifurcation, and on the other hand, Newtonian fluid is a good approximation to blood for flow simulations in the carotid artery bifurcation.     

An analytical model for electrode–ceramic interaction in multilayer piezoelectric actuators

The present paper develops an analytical model for multi-electrodes in multi-layered piezoelectric actuators, in which the electrodes are vertical to and terminated at the edges of the medium and electroelastic field concentrations ahead of the electrodes in the multilayer piezoelectric actuators are examined. By considering a representative unit in realistic multilayers, the problem is formulated in terms of electric potential between the electrode tips and results in a system of singular integral equations in which the electric potential is taken as unknown function. Effects are investigated of electrode spacing and piezoelectric coupling on the singular electroelastic fields at the electrode tips, and closed-form expressions are given for the electromechanical field near the electrode tips. Exact solution for un-coupled dielectrics is provided, where no piezoelectric coupling is present. The English text was polished by Yunming Chen.