Measurement of temperature, fuel concentration and equivalence ratio fields using tracer LIF in IC engine combustion

A technique based on planar laser-induced fluorescence of 3-pentanone, for measurements of absolute concentration, temperature and fuel/air equivalence ratios in turbulent, high-pressure combustion systems such as an internal combustion engine is presented. Quasi-simultaneous excitation with 248 nm and 308 nm of 3-pentanone that is used as a fluorescence tracer doped to iso-octane, yields pairs of strongly temperature-dependent fluorescence images. Previous investigations have resulted in information on temperature and pressure dependence of absorption cross-sections and fluorescence quantum yields. Using these data the ratio of corresponding fluorescence images can be converted to temperature images. Instantaneous temperature distribution fields in the compression stroke and in the unburned end-gas of an SI engine were measured. The temperature fields obtained from the two-line technique are used to correct the original tracer-LIF images in order to evaluate quantitative fuel distributions in terms of number densities and fuel/air equivalence ratio. Received: 10 March 2000 / Revised version: 19 April 2000 / Published online: 16 August 2000     

Coherence gating in optical heterodyne detection measurements of scattering and absorption in highly scattering media

Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) from the S₁ state of acetone and 3-pentanone was studied as a function of temperature and pressure using excitation at 248 nm. Additionally, LIF of 3-pentanone was investigated using 277 and 312 nm excitation. Added gases were synthetic air, O₂, and N₂ respectively, in the range 0–50 bar. At 383 K and for excitation at 248 nm, all the chosen collision partners gave an initial enhancement in fluorescence intensity with added gas pressure. Thereafter, the signal intensity remained constant for N₂ but decreased markedly for O₂. For synthetic air, only a small decrease occurred beyond 25 bar. At longer excitation wavelengths (277 and 312 nm), the corresponding initial rise in signal with synthetic air pressure was less than that for 248 nm. The temperature dependence of the fluorescence intensity was determined in the range 383–640 K at a constant pressure of 1 bar synthetic air. For 248 nm excitation, a marked fall in the fluorescence signal was observed, whereas for 277 nm excitation the corresponding decrease was only half as strong. By contrast, exciting 3-pentanone at 312 nm, the signal intensity increased markedly in the same temperature range. These results are consistent with the observation of a red shift of the absorption spectra (9 nm) over this temperature range. Essentially, the same temperature dependence was obtained at 10 and 20 bar pressure of synthetic air. It is demonstrated that temperatures can be determined from the relative fluorescence intensities following excitation of 3-pentanone at 248 and 312 nm, respectively. This new approach could be of interest as a non-intrusive thermometry method, e.g., for the compression phase in combustion engines.     

3-pentanone fluorescence yield measurements and modeling at elevated temperatures and pressures

Measurements of 3-pentanone fluorescence quantum yield (FQY) over a wide range of temperatures and pressures in air and nitrogen bath gases are reported and a comprehensive FQY model in support of quantitative planar laser-induced fluorescence diagnostics at elevated pressures and temperatures is presented. Measurements were made of the FQY for 20 mbar of 3-pentanone in nitrogen and air for pressures between 1 and 25 bar in a high-pressure and high-temperature cell for excitation wavelengths of 248, 266, 277, and 308 nm. The measurements were performed in nitrogen from 298 to 745 K and in air from 298 to 567 K. The 3-pentanone FQY data were used to optimize FQY model parameters, including the oxygen and nitrogen quenching rates and vibrational relaxation cascade parameters for nitrogen and oxygen. This work introduces vibrational energy dependence for cascade parameters, as well as a nitrogen quenching rate. The new 3-pentanone FQY model agrees with the measurements within 10%, as well as with fluorescence signal measurements from optical internal combustion engines at pressures and temperatures up to 28 bar and 1100 K.     

Temperature and excitation wavelength dependencies of 3-pentanone absorption and fluorescence for PLIF applications

The temperature and excitation wavelength dependencies of 3-pentanone absorption and fluorescence were studied in support of planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) imaging of temperature and mixture fraction in flows of practical interest. The temperature dependencies (300–875 K) of absorption and fluorescence were measured for gaseous 3-pentanoneat atmospheric pressure in a nitrogen bath gas using 248, 266, and 308 nm excitation. The results indicate that the fluorescence signal per unit mole fraction using 248 nm excitation is highly temperature-sensitive below 600 K, while the signal from 308 nm excitation is not temperature sensitive below 500 K. For quantitative measurements over a broad range of temperatures, one must choose excitation schemes carefully to balance the trade-off between measurement sensitivity and the amount of signal at the expected conditions. As an example of such a choice and to show the capabilities of ketone PLIF techniques, we include temperature and mixture fraction images of a 300–650 K heated air jet using near-simultaneous 308 and 266 nm excitation. Received: 29 May 2002 / Revised version: 5 November 2002 / Published online: 26 February 2003 RID="*" ID="*"Corresponding author. Fax: +1-650/723-1748, E-mail: jkoch@stanford.edu RID="**" ID="**"E-mail: hanson@me.stanford.edu     

Planar imaging thermometry in gaseous flows using upconversion excitation of thermographic phosphors

Temperature measurement in gaseous flows is of significant practical importance for determining convection coefficients for heat transfer calculations, validating computation fluid dynamic simulations, and understanding the fundamentals of turbulent mixing and transport in flows. Here, we report on a new diagnostic technique for measuring temperature in gaseous flows which relies upon upconversion luminescence from inorganic phosphors. The phosphor used for the study consists of erbium (Er³⁺) and ytterbium (Yb³⁺) ions doped into a yttrium oxysulfide host material. The theoretical background behind the upconversion diagnostic is presented and spectral emission data taken using upconversion excitation are used to design a temperature diagnostic which is quite sensitive for temperatures ranging from approximately 300–600 K. Demonstration temperature measurements were performed in an air jet heated to temperatures ranging from 295–523 K. Single-shot images of temperature were obtained with a temperature precision of approximately ±5 K (1 standard deviation basis). This is the first known application of upconversion excitation to imaging temperatures in gaseous flows.     

Determination of fluorescence and non-radiative de-excitation rates of excited 3-pentanone at low pressures

3-Pentanone photophysics measurements and subsequent fluorescence quantum yield (FQY) model development are presented. A heated, flowing optical cell and laser excitation at 248, 266, 277, and 308 nm were utilized, allowing investigation of FQY and absorption cross-section values for 3-pentanone vapor from 298 to 690 K and 10 to 30 mbar. Measurements of FQY were also made for 20 mbar of 3-pentanone at 1.3 bar total pressure in nitrogen from 298 to 530 K and in air from 298 to 487 K. Absolute FQY was determined by calibration to Rayleigh scattering of nitrogen gas. Based on these FQY measurements and fluorescence lifetime data from previous work, the fluorescence rate k _f was determined to be 3.70×10⁵ s⁻¹. The current work extends knowledge of the non-radiative rate k _nr to vibrational energies of 15000 cm⁻¹, and the expression for k _nr was optimized to include a fit to these new data points. Finally, variation of FQY with 3-pentanone vapor pressure was used to optimize the vibrational relaxation cascade parameter α _3p . The updated FQY model for 3-pentanone vapor shows agreement within 8% to the current FQY data across the investigated range of temperatures and pressures.     

3-Pentanone LIF at elevated temperatures and pressures: measurements and modeling

The objective of this study is to investigate 3-pentanone fluorescence experiments in a constant volume vessel at high temperature and high pressure to underline the influent parameters in conditions close to those encountered in internal combustion engines. To obtain quantitative analysis, measured fluorescence signals must be corrected by considering the influence of preponderant parameters such as temperature, pressure and gas composition. Quantitative dependences of fluorescence on thermodynamic parameters are measured and compared with the predictions of a photophysical model, which combines the effects of temperature, pressure, excitation wavelength on fluorescence quantum yield. The increase of 3-pentanone fluorescence with pressure is due to the vibrational relaxation of energy levels. The fluorescence decreases with increasing temperature, except at low temperature where the fluorescence increase is due to an activation of intersystem crossing between triplet toward singlet levels. The influences of thermodynamic parameters are based on an increase of the non-radiative decay rate with the vibrational energy level of excited electronic state and the important collisions to remove the excess vibrational energy. Experimental and calculated results show a satisfactory agreement. PACS 33.20; 33.50; 34.90     

Toluene laser-induced fluorescence for in-cylinder temperature imaging in internal combustion engines

A single-laser single-camera imaging technique was demonstrated for in-cylinder temperature distribution measurements in a direct-injection internal combustion engine. The single excitation wavelength two-color detection technique is based on toluene laser-induced fluorescence (LIF). Toluene-LIF emission spectra show a red-shift with increasing temperature. Temperature can thus be determined from the ratio of the signal measured in two separate wavelength ranges independent of the local tracer concentration, laser pulse energy, and the intensity distribution. An image doubling and filtering system is used for the simultaneous imaging of two wavelength ranges of toluene LIF onto the chip of a single camera upon excitation at 248 nm. The measurements were performed in a spark-ignition engine with homogeneous charge and yielded temperature images with a single-shot precision of approximately ±?6%.     

Fluorescence saturation measurements of 3-pentanone

The saturation characteristics of 3-pentanone fluorescence were investigated in an ambient temperature and pressure cell by imaging the fluorescence produced by a focused quadrupled Nd:YAG laser beam. The onset of fluorescence saturation was observed at laser fluences around 0.06 J/cm², which is only about 1.3% of estimates that assume a two-level model and use measured values of the fluorescence lifetime and absorption cross-section. A spatially resolved model indicated that the saturation fluence changed only 10% when a Gaussian profile was used instead of a top-hat profile. Laser sources with significantly different temporal profiles will have different threshold fluence levels, but the present results suggest that saturation effects should be monitored in planar laser-induced fluorescence imaging experiments using 3-pentanone.     

High-speed planar thermometry and velocimetry using thermographic phosphor particles

Simultaneous gas-phase temperature and velocity imaging using micrometer-size thermographic phosphor particles seeded into the flow is demonstrated at a 3 kHz repetition rate. The velocity field is measured using a standard particle image velocimetry approach, while the temperature is determined from the temperature sensitive phosphorescence emission of the particles following excitation at 355 nm. Since the particles are very small, they rapidly assume the temperature and velocity of the surrounding gas. A single shot temperature precision of better than 5 % was achieved at 500 K. Time-resolved measurements in the wake of a heated cylinder are presented, demonstrating the utility of these imaging diagnostics to observe transient, coupled heat and mass transfer phenomena.     

A high-temperature study of 2-pentanone oxidation: experiment and kinetic modeling

Small methyl ketones are known to have high octane numbers, impressive knock resistance, and show low emissions of soot, NO_x, and unburnt hydrocarbons. However, previous studies have focused on the analysis of smaller ketones and 3-pentanone, while the asymmetric 2-pentanone (methyl propyl ketone) has not gained much attention before. Considering ketones as possible fuels or additives, it is of particular importance to fully understand the combustion kinetics and the effect of the functional carbonyl group. Due to the higher energy density in a C₅-ketone compared to the potential biofuel 2-butanone, the flame structure and the mole fraction profiles of species formed in 2-pentanone combustion are of high interest, especially to evaluate harmful species formations. In this study, a laminar premixed low-pressure (p?=?40 mbar) fuel-rich (??=?1.6) flat flame of 2-pentanone has been analyzed by vacuum-ultraviolet photoionization molecular-beam mass-spectrometry (VUV-PI-MBMS) enabling isomer separation. Quantitative mole fraction profiles of 47 species were obtained and compared to a model consisting of an existing base mechanism and a newly developed high-temperature sub-mechanism for 2-pentanone. High-temperature reactions for 2-pentanone were adapted in analogy to 2-butanone and n-pentane, and the thermochemistry for 2-pentanone and the respective fuel radicals was derived by ab initio calculations. Good agreement was found between experiment and simulation for the first decomposition products, supporting the initial branching reactions of the 2-pentanone sub-mechanism. Also, species indicating low-temperature chemistry in the preheating zone of the flame have been observed. The present measurements of a 2-pentanone flame provide useful validation targets for further kinetic model development.     

Untersuchung zur anwendbarkeit impulsförmiger anregung für ein meßverfahren zur bestimmung von körperschallanregung und -übertragung

A procedure has been developed for measuring the structure-borne sound sensitivity of building structures to stationary excitation. This procedure has the advantage that it can be conducted with simple sound pressure and vibration measurements. The precision and reproducibility of the measurement procedure have been tested. This method permits the measurement of the vibratory point forces due to structure-borne sound sources in buildings or other systems.In order to determine the structure-borne sound sensitivity and the vibratory point forces to transient excitation, impulses were tested and compared with the results obtained with stationary excitation.     

Evolution and impingement of an automotive fuel spray investigated with simultaneous Mie/LIF techniques

The spatial and temporal evolution of an automotive hollow-cone-type spray was investigated with laser-based imaging diagnostics. Optical conditions of an IC engine were emulated with a test cell that was built from an engine cylinder head to hold a high-pressure gasoline-fuel injector. The use of iso-octane fuel that was doped with 3-pentanone allowed measurements of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) after excitation with a KrF excimer-laser beam. A versatile optical filter system was designed and built that permits simultaneous measurements of Mie-scattering and laser-induced-fluorescence images using a single laser-light sheet and a single intensified CCD camera. The influence of background signals, caused by reflection of signal light from surfaces, laser-sheet intensity attenuation and signal decrease by scattering, was characterized. Mass distributions showed a distinct pre-spray phase, more so than the Sauter mean diameter (SMD) that was determined from the ratio of LIF to Mie signals using single pulse as well as averaged image pairs. Significant changes in SMD distributions were found after the spray had impinged on a flat surface. The impingement also led to the buildup of a liquid film whose thickness was quantitatively determined from LIF images. Received: 5 December 2000 / Revised version: 28 February 2001 / Published online: 23 May 2001     

Measurement of Electron Densities and Temperatures in the Plasma Boundary Combining Neutral Beam Probes and Laser-Induced Fluorescence

A new diagnostic method using both techniques of neutral beam probing and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) is proposed to measure electron density (1011-1013 cm-3) and electron temperature (1-100 eV) of a boundary layer plasma in devices like tokamaks. The local electron density can be obtained by measuring the photon flux of the resonance line produced by electron impact excitation of an injected neutral Li-beam which is produced by laser-induced evaporation (LIE). The density of the neutral Li-beam which is necessary for the determination of the electron density is measured by LIF. The local electron temperature can be obtained by determining the attenuation of two neutral beams (Li, and Al or Ti) produced by LIE, of which the measurements are carried out by means of LIF. The applicability of this method to the TEXTOR tokamak is discussed in detail.     

Insight into fuel isomeric effects on laminar flame propagation of pentanones

Laminar flame propagation was investigated for pentanone isomers/air mixtures (3-pentanone, 2-pentanone and 3-methyl-2-butanone) in a high-pressure constant-volume cylindrical combustion vessel at 393–423 K, 1–10 atm and equivalence ratios of 0.6–1.5, and in a heat flux burner at 393 K, 1 atm and equivalence ratios of 0.6–1.5. Two kinds of methods generally show good agreement, both of which indicate that the laminar burning velocity increases in the order of 3-methyl-2-butanone, 2-pentanone and 3-pentanone. A kinetic model of pentanone isomers was developed and validated against experimental data in this work and in literature. Modeling analysis was performed to provide insight into the flame chemistry of the three pentanone isomers. H-abstraction reactions are concluded to dominate fuel consumption, and further decomposition of fuel radicals eventually produces fuel-specific small radicals. The differences in radical pools are concluded to be responsible for the observed fuel isomeric effects on laminar burning velocity. Among the three pentanone isomers, 3-pentanone tends to produce ethyl and does not prefer to produce methyl and allyl in flames, thus it has the highest reactivity and fastest laminar flame propagation. On the contrary, 3-methyl-2-butanone tends to produce allyl and methyl instead of ethyl, and consequently has the lowest reactivity and slowest laminar flame propagation.     

基于快速压缩机的2-戊酮点火过程研究

酮类燃料可作为燃料添加剂和示踪剂在内燃机中使用,然而其化学反应动力学机理仍缺乏研究。本项工作利用快速压缩机实验平台测量了2-戊酮当量比为0.5和1.0,温度890~1130 K的条件下的点火延迟时间,并结合快速采样系统利用气相色谱对2-戊酮点火延迟过程中的7种中间组分进行了定性及定量测量。类比丁酮和1-戊烯的相关反应,构建了2-戊酮的详细化学反应动力学模型,与实验数据相对比,指出了模型优化的方向,为2-戊酮的进一步研究提供了基础.     

Measurements of near-UV absorption spectra of acetone and 3-pentanone at high temperatures

Gas phase acetone and 3-pentanone absorption cross sections have been measured in shock-heated gases in the wavelength range from 220 to 340 nm (the n−π^* system) at temperatures between 300 and 1100 K. Absorption measurements using a deuterium source and a kinetic spectrograph enable accurate, broadband measurements of absorption cross sections while simultaneously observing decomposition at elevated temperatures, thus minimizing errors due to product formation. The absorption spectra of both ketones increase in strength and shift to the red with increasing temperature. The spectra are fitted to a parameterized Gaussian curve to allow for calculations of the cross sections as a function of temperature and wavelength.     

Gas Phase Oxygen Quenching Studies of Ketone Tracers for Laser-Induced Fluorescence Applications in Nitrogen Bath Gas

In this paper we report the quantitative oxygen quenching effect on laser-induced fluorescence of acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and 3-pentanone at low pressures (～700 torr) with oxygen partial pressures up to 450 torr. Nitrogen was used as a bath gas in which these molecular tracers were added in different quantities according to their vapor pressure at room temperature. These tracers were excited by using a frequency-quadrupled, Q-switched, Nd:YAG laser (266 nm). Stern–Volmer plots were found to be linear for all the tracers, suggesting that quenching is collisional in nature. Stern–Volmer coefficients (k_sv) and quenching rate constants (k_q) were calculated from Stern–Volmer plots. The effects of oxygen on the laser-induced fluorescence of acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and 3-pentanone were compared with each other. Further, the Smoluchowski theory was used to calculate the quenching parameters and compared with the experimental results.     

Dual-broadband CARS temperature measurements in hydrogen-oxygen atmospheric pressure flames

Dual-broadband coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) spectroscopy of the Q₀₁-branch of H₂ has been employed for thermometry in an atmospheric-pressure hydrogen-oxygen flame. The aim was to investigate the applicability of the technique for single-shot temperature evaluation and to analyse the precision of the measurements. The results are presented of temperature and relative H₂ density mapping of the flame in the temperature range of 700-2800 K. The achieved precision of single-shot measurements was 3-5%.     

Temperature measurements in sooting counterflow diffusion flames using laser-induced fluorescence of flame-produced nitric oxide

Laser-based diagnostic methods are often used for non-intrusive studies of delicate processes of soot formation. When soot particles are heated by the laser pulse, their size distribution can be estimated from the cooling rate, provided that the local gas temperature is known. However, strong light absorption, scattering and fluorescence in sooting environment hinder non-intrusive laser-based temperature measurements. Methods based on fitting of laser-induced fluorescence spectra work well in stationary flames but usually require temperature tracer seeded into the flame. We have shown that in counterflow diffusion flames, often used for soot-formation studies, enough nitric oxide is produced for two-dimensional temperature imaging. Measured temperature profiles agree very well with chemical kinetic calculations for a variety of fuels if laser intensity is reduced to keep NO excitation in the linear regime. Gas composition affects line shapes at temperatures below 600 K and should be taken into account for accurate measurements.