Thermal field emission as a mechanism for infrared laser light detection in metal whisker diode

The non-linear current-voltage characteristic of thermally enhanced field emission is proposed to explain the operation of a metal-metal point contact diode used for laser harmonic frequency generation and frequency mixing in the infrared region. This mechanism can explain several experimental observations which appear inconsistent with the previous analysis based on a planar metal-oxide-metal tunneling geometry.     

Comments on nonlinearity,response time and polarity reversal in a thermal field emission metal whisker diode

In a series of recent experiments, research groups have made absolute frequency measurements with laser beams in the infrared region (μm) using a metal-metal point contact diode for the generation, frequency mixing and detection. At present there are two models which attempt to explain the rectification mechanism of the diode: 1) Tunneling of electrons through an intermediate oxide film from whisker to the metal base, i.e., configuration is considered to be a metal-oxide-metal (MOM) tunneling junction. 2) Rectification and nonlinear processes are the result of a thermal enchanced field emission. Such emission is a consequence of the immersion of the whisker in the laser radiation which results in conduction induced thermionic emission and/or generation of an electric field at the tip necessary for electron tunneling by field emission. The purpose of this comment is: a) to discuss qualitatively the basic difference between MOM and TFE theories as regards the origin of the nonlinearity and rectification properties of the metal point contact junction; b) to review the analyses describing the ultimate frequency response of the device; and 3) to provide a possible explanation for polarity reversal consistent with the TFE mechanism describing the operation of the whisker diode. This research was supported in part by the NATO Research Grants Program, Scientific Affairs, Brussels, Belgium, and under the auspices of the joint projects ESIS (electronic structure in solids) and IRIS (Institute for Research in Interface Sciences) of the Belgian Ministry for Science Policy     

The use of antenna theory to calculate the electric fields in a thermal field emission metal whisker diode

In recent years, research groups have used metal-metal point contact diodes for frequency mixing and detection of infrared laser radiation. It has been postulated that the mechanism for the nonlinear current-voltage characteristic of the diode is the tunneling of electrons through an intermediate oxide film from the whisker tip to the metal base, i.e., the configuration is considered to be a metal-oxide-metal (MOM) tunneling junction. Several features of the diodes' operation create considerable doubt concerning the applicability of the MOM tunneling mechanism. Analysis of the available data led us to postulate an alternate solid state mechanism, namely a thermally enhanced field emission process. Such emission would be a consequence of the immersion of the whisker in the laser radiation resulting in (1) conduction heating which induces thermionic emission and (2) generation of an electric field at the tip necessary for electron tunneling. In an earlier paper, we calculated the power absorbed by the cylindrical shank of a point contact diode in an infrared radiation field. Using the absorbed power as a source, detailed calculations were made of the laser induced temperature distributions on the diode; more approximate treatments were used to obtain the electric fields developed on the tip. Values of the computed temperature and field parameters for tungsten were found to be consistent with a thermal field emission process. In this paper we present a more rigorous calculation of the voltages and fields induced on different metal whisker tips by the incident laser radiation. Linear antenna theory is used to describe the receiving properties of the diode. The actual pointed geometry of the diode tip has been taken into account using Schelkunoff's theory of the conical antenna. The electric fields at the tip are found to be comparable with those necessary for field emission. The highest fields are established on gold tips, consistent with the experiments of Green et al. who found the best responsivity occurs with gold-gold contacts. Finally we discuss the significance of the experimental results of Young et al. on metal-vacuum-metal tunneling characteristics to the MOM tunneling hypothesis.     

Stimulated stokes emission with a dye laser: Intense tuneable radiation in the infrared

Tuneable stimulated Stokes emission is generated at ≈2.9 μm in barium vapor with an oscillator-amplifier dye laser. The conversion efficiency is as high as 40% and the energy output as high as 30 mJ. The emission is tuneable over ≈100 cm^-1. At high vapor pressures the tuning profile is markedly asymmetric.     

Autoelectronic emission of metallic films induced by picosecond pulses of infrared laser radiation

The well-known defects of the surface of a solid, microscopic projections and spikes, play a decisive role in electron emission induced by an electric field. If there are mobile electrons of holes in the solid, then the electric field is enhanced by a factor of 10–100 at the tip of a microscopic projection. This effect was discovered in electrostatics more than a century ago. In turn, the probability of tunnel emission of an electron from a metal into a vacuum is an exponential function of the electric field strength. Correspondingly the electron emission current density at the tip of a microscopic spike can be larger than that on a smooth surface by an astronomical factor. This effect is particularly strikingly manifested when picosecond pulses of infrared laser radiation of moderate power are used to initiate autoelectronic emission. Relative to a smooth surface, the emission current density is enhanced by hundreds of orders of magnitude. These experimental conditions can be used to scan the surface of a conducting material with a laser beam and to detect all the microscopic projections, in order to male detailed observations with subpicosecond time resolution of the phase transition from autoelectronic emission to explosive emission. Polytechnic University, Tomsk. Institute of Electrophysics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. French National Scientific Center, Saclay, France. Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchenbnykh Zavedenii, Fizika, No. 11, pp. 42–44, November, 1997.     

Amplitude noise enhancement caused by nonlinear interaction of spontaneous emission field in laser diodes

The amplitude noise spectrum of the total laser output of a nearly single-mode laser diode is enhanced at low frequencies due to the nonlinear interaction between the spontaneous photons and the coherent laser field. This enhancement strongly depends on the spontaneous emission rate, resulting in a dependence of the amplitude noise spectral shape on the spontaneous emission rate. A linearized analytical model which predicts that the amplitude noise spectral shape is independent of the spontaneous emission rate is inadequate. The experimental data are consistent with a numerical simulation of the full nonlinear model.     

The effect of infrared laser radiation on the selectivity of gas-mixture flow through metal capillaries

The effect of infrared laser radiation on the flow of gas mixtures through metal capillaries is investigated. It is found that many characteristic features of the processes depend on the interaction of resonant molecules with the surface as well as on the input pressure at the capillary entrance. Special attention is paid to the establishment of conditions where there exists a selective effect of the laser radiation on the flow of the components of the gas mixture through the capillary.     

Thermal stability and radiation hardness of SiC-based schottky-barrier diodes

Pt/W/Cr/SiC Schottky-barrier diodes that retain good electrophysical parameters up to 450°C are studied. With the Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) method, it is shown that the thermal stability is provided by using a multilayer metal composition that ensures the metal/SiC interface stability. The surface-barrier structures obtained are tested for radiation hardness. They are irradiated by fast neutrons with a fluence of 4.42×10¹⁵ n/cm² and attendant γ radiation with a dose of 8.67×10⁵ R in the concentration range of N _d-N _a=10¹⁶−5×10¹⁷ cm⁻³. Irreversible modifications of the structures at N _d-N _a≤8×10¹⁶ cm⁻³ are found. The degradation of the parameters is inversely proportional to the doping level.     

Nonlinear photoelectron emission from metal surfaces induced by short laser pulses: the effects of field enhancement by surface plasmons

Nonlinear electron emission processes induced by surface plasmon oscillations have been studied both experimentally and theoretically. The measured above-threshold electron spectra extend up to high energies whose appearance cannot be explained solely by standard non-perturbative methods, which predict photon energy separated discrete energy line spectra with the known fast fall–plateau–cutoff envelope shape, even when taking the large field enhancement into account. The theoretical analysis of our data, based on the concept of plasmon-induced surface near-field effects, gives a reasonably good explanation and qualitative agreement in the whole intensity range.     

On the influence of dopant ions on blue emission in kgw crystal excited by infrared laser radiation

The role of doping by Nd³⁺ and Tm³⁺ ions in the generation of blue emission in a KGW crystal excited by infrared radiation has been analyzed. Experimental measurements of the emission characteristics and theoretical results of modeling emission spectra of the doping ions are compared. A qualitative difference is shown between the calculated Tm³⁺ luminescence spectrum and that observed in the experiment. Data on branching ratios of luminescence from the ²P_1/2 level of the Nd³⁺ ions suggest a low emission efficiency from this multiplet in the blue spectral region.     

Thermoreflectance imaging of laser diodes and VCSELs along and perpendicular to the emission direction

Thermal characterization of semiconductor lasers is an important issue for optoelectronics. This paper presents our thermoreflectance measurements on two different types of laser diodes: classical ridge laser diodes and vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs). We first studied the external temperature increase in ridge diodes in order to determine inhomogeneity. Then, we tried to determine the inner temperature of the VCSELs.     

Robust hollow devices and waveguides for Er:YAG laser radiation

Fluorocarbon-polymer (FCP) coated silver hollow stainless steel (St) devices and waveguides have been developed for Er:YAG laser radiation. Full liquid phase techniques have been adopted to coat the silver and FCP layers inside the stainless steel hollow structure. Both straight and bent robust hollow devices have been fabricated as the output optical elements for the delivery system of medical Er:YAG lasers. A robust hollow waveguide with the length of about 1.6 m has also been realized as an actual delivery system.     

Study of acoustic emission in glass upon exposure to infrared laser pulses

The previously published hypothesis of the acoustic emission (AE) occurrence due to recombination of defects transferred to the surface by an elastic wave is analyzed. The dynamics of the rate of the defect appearance on the surface, controlling the AE level, is determined. The effect of such factors as the character of the dependence of the number of transferred defects on the wave intensity, their fraction in the total number of dislocations, and the wave damping rate in the sample is studied. The results are compared with experimental data.     

3D periodic structures grown on silicon by radiation of a pulsed Nd:YAG laser and their field emission properties

Periodic three-dimensional structures were successfully grown on single crystal Si wafers either bare or Au-covered under their exposure to a pulsed radiation of a Nd:YAG laser in vacuum. The structures protrude above the initial wafer surface for 10 μm while their spatial period is about 70 μm. The coupling of the laser radiation to Si surface is related to the thermal non-linear absorption of the near band gap radiation. The structures exhibit an efficient field emission with an average emission current of 5 mA/cm² and is sensitive to the post-treatment of samples. The drawbacks of the emission current densities are discussed.     

多量子阱激光二极管质子辐射效应及其退火特性

 研究5和2 MeV质子对法布里-珀罗（FP）腔结构及分布反馈（DFB）结构的多量子阱激光二极管的辐射效应,结果显示：在5×10¹²～5×10¹³ cm^-2质子注量范围内,随着注量的增大,激光二极管阈值电流逐渐增大,电流-电压特性的低压区电流渐渐增大。由60Coγ总剂量实验结果推断:质子对实验器件的损伤源于质子位移效应。采用Trim程序的模拟结果表明：在2 MeV质子射程以内,2 MeV质子要比5 MeV质子产生的空位数多。这使得相同辐照注量下,2 MeV质子要比5 MeV质子导致的阈值电流增大更多,损伤更为严重。激光二极管辐射损伤存在着正向偏置退火效应,FP和DFB结构的二极管具有相似的加电退火规律,均可拟合成指数衰减形式,退火曲线可以分成退火常数不同的几段进行拟合。正向偏置退火效应使得辐照期间,处于加电状态的激光二极管比处于短路状态的激光二极管退化程度有所减弱。     

多量子阱激光二极管质子辐射效应及其退火特性

研究5和2 MeV质子对法布里-珀罗（FP）腔结构及分布反馈（DFB）结构的多量子阱激光二极管的辐射效应,结果显示：在5×1012～5×1013 cm-2质子注量范围内,随着注量的增大,激光二极管阈值电流逐渐增大,电流-电压特性的低压区电流渐渐增大。由60Coγ总剂量实验结果推断:质子对实验器件的损伤源于质子位移效应。采用Trim程序的模拟结果表明：在2 MeV质子射程以内,2 MeV质子要比5 MeV质子产生的空位数多。这使得相同辐照注量下,2 MeV质子要比5 MeV质子导致的阈值电流增大更多,损伤更为严重。激光二极管辐射损伤存在着正向偏置退火效应,FP和DFB结构的二极管具有相似的加电退火规律,均可拟合成指数衰减形式,退火曲线可以分成退火常数不同的几段进行拟合。正向偏置退火效应使得辐照期间,处于加电状态的激光二极管比处于短路状态的激光二极管退化程度有所减弱。     

利用激光主动探测技术实现光电窥视设备检测

针对激光主动探测时光电设备表现出的猫眼效应,搭建了基于CCD的激光主动探测系统,提出了一套有效的光电窥视设备检测算法。该算法在激光脉冲的间隔,同时采集激光主被动图像,根据窥视目标与普通漫反射物体的回波强度差异,利用背景差法检测窥视目标。实验结果表明,在半径为5 m的作用范围内,该激光主动探测系统可有效、快速地将光电窥视目标从背景中检测出来,并且不受场景和光照的限制。通过对光学口径为2 mm的光电窥视设备在20个不同场景环境下进行实验,正确检测率达到95%,且每帧的检测时间在0.015~0.021 s内,满足了实时性需求,验证了本文系统搭建方案的正确性与软件处理算法的有效性。     

Interference effects in the scattering of identical atoms in a laser radiation field

The properties of the collision integral in a quantum Boltzmann-type kinetic equation are studied under the conditions of spatially nonuniform distributions of colliding particles interacting with an external electromagnetic field. The components of the nonlinear resonances and the velocity distribution of the excited atoms, which are due to polarization transitions, are determined on the basis of the Kazantsev collision integral.     

Application of metal nanoparticles in confocal laser scanning microscopy: improved resolution by optical field enhancement

We describe experiments in which the field enhancement by metal nanoparticles that accompanies surface plasmon excitation has been exploited in confocal laser scanning microscopy. The objective was to make use of the rapid decay of the enhanced light field with distance from the nanoparticles to increase the longitudinal resolution, by confining the emission of fluorescence light to the immediate vicinity of the contact area between the substrate and the objects under study. We demonstrate that the increased longitudinal resolution is accompanied by a better lateral resolution if the imaged objects have a curved surface.