Degradation effects of dilute polymer solutions on turbulent drag reduction in pipe flows

An important practical problem in the application and study of drag reduction by polymer additives is the degradation of the polymer, for instance due to intense shearing, especially in recirculatory flow systems. Such degradation leads to a marked loss of the drag-reducing capability of the polymer.Three different polymer types were tested on degradation effects in a closed pipe flow system. The polymers used were Polyox WSR-301, Separan AP-273 and Superfloc A-110, dissolved in water in concentrations of 20 wppm each. The flow system consisted of a 16.3 mm pipe of 4.25 m length. Two different pumps were used: a centrifugal pump and a disc pump. Different solution-preparation procedures were tried and the experiments were performed at different flow rates.Superfloc A-110 proved to be both the most effective drag reducer and most resistant to degradation. Because of very fast degradation, Polyox WSR-301 was found to be unsuitable for being used as a drag reducer in re-circulatory systems. The disc pump proved to be much better suited for pumping the polymer solutions than the centrifugal pump. The degradation curve of the combination Superfloc/disc pump showed a plateau-like region with reasonable drag reduction, which makes it possible to perform (laser Doppler) measurements under nearly constant circumstances during a sufficient time.     

Pool boiling of drag-reducing polymer solutions

The effect of drag-reducing polymeric additives on the critical heat flux and minimum film boiling temperature in subcooled pool boiling of water has been experimentally examined. Three water-soluble polymers, viz. a polyethylene oxide (Aldrich No. 18946-4), a polyacrylamide (Separan AP-30), and a galactomannan polysaccharide (Galactasol-211) have been examined at concentrations of 10, 50, and 100 wppm. The experiment is performed by quenching a hot brass sphere in an isothermal pool of the fluid to be examined and obtaining the corresponding boiling curve. The experiments have been conducted at atmospheric pressure with a pool temperature of 90°C. The results show that the critical heat flux increases by more than 50% while the minimum film boiling temperature increases by more than 110°C when concentrations of 100 wppm of polyox or guar gum are used. For separan solutions, the critical heat flux and minimum film boiling temperature are lower than those for water and go through a minimum at a concentration of ～10 wppm; the maximum reductions are about 73% and 34°C respectively.     

The effect of polymer additives on transition in pipe flow

Summary Small amounts of long chain water soluble polymers have a marked effect on turbulent flow resulting in an appreciable reduction of turbulent friction. The maximum reduction in pipe flow resistance is obtained at such low concentrations that the density and viscosity are not altered appreciably. The minimum friction curve varies as Re ^–2/3 and appears to be the same for all effective additives tested. The transition process is affected by these additives. Quantitative results are presented showing a reduction in the intensity of the turbulent flashes and the fraction of the time the flow is turbulent at a given Reynolds number.     

Friction factor correlations for gas–liquid/liquid–liquid flows with drag-reducing polymers in horizontal pipes

In the present paper, two correlations have been developed to predict the effect of DRP on friction factor of two-phase flow for any pipe diameter. The correlations have been verified using published experimental results of DRP added to air–liquid annular flow and for oil–water flows with any flow pattern at the asymptotic state (maximum drag reduction). Such correlations are not available in literature and considered to be very useful in predicting the drag reduction using DRP and in understanding the most significant parameters that affecting the mechanism of drag reduction by polymers in multiphase flow.     

Drag reduction behavior of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/polysaccharide mixed polymer solutions—effect of solution salinity and polymer concentration

Anionic polyacrylamide is a hydrolyzed form of polyacrylamide (HPAM), which suffers from mechanical degradation at turbulent flow rates. In order to investigate the possibility of improving the shear resistance of HPAM, various polyacrylamide/polysaccharide mixtures as well as single xanthan gum (XG) and guar gum (GG) polymer solutions were prepared and drag reduction (DR) measurements were performed in a closed flow loop. It was found that the DR efficiencies of both XG and GG solutions were directly proportional to polymer concentration and both solutions exhibited excellent mechanical resistance at turbulent conditions. The presence of XG in concentrated HPAM/XG solutions (C > 450 wppm) significantly improved both DR efficiency and shear resistance of the solutions (6–8% decline after shearing for 2 h). GG solutions exhibited smaller DR efficiencies than XG solutions. Due to small molar mass and low flexibility, GG was not as good a friction reducer as XG and HPAM; therefore, the presence of GG did not improve the DR behavior of the binary solutions. Another issue associated with HPAM is sensitivity to the presence of salt ions in the solution. The effect of salt on the DR behavior was verified by addition of 2% KCl to single and binary solutions. Drag reduction efficiencies of HPAM/XG/KCl solutions were 28 and 20% compared to 10% DR of 1000 wppm HPAM/KCl solution. It was found that the presence of XG in binary solutions significantly reduced the negative effect of salt ions on HPAM molecules.     

N/P无卤素离子液体润滑剂的链长与摩擦学性能的关系

合成了不同链长的N/P无卤素离子液体(NPILs:缩写为NP-11114,NP-11116,NP-11118)润滑剂,以聚α-烯烃(PAO 10)和卤素离子液体1-辛基3-甲基咪唑六氟磷酸盐(L-P 108)作为参照样,评价NPILs、PAO 10及L-P 108之间黏温性能、热稳定性以及室温和高温条件下的钢/钢摩擦副润滑剂的性能差异,探索了NPILs阳离子链长变化对其物理化学性质和摩擦学性能的影响规律. 结果表明:NPILs的黏度高于PAO 10和L-P 108,热分解温度低于PAO 10和L-P 108,NPILs黏度和热分解温度随着链长的增加而增加. 作为钢/钢摩擦副的润滑剂时,NPILs室温状态下减摩性能不及L-P108,但是NP-11118的抗磨性能优于L-P108;高温状态下,NPILs的减摩抗磨性能均优于L-P 108. 在常温和高温下NPILs相比PAO 10均具有优异的减摩抗磨性能,而且摩擦学性能随着烷基链长的增加而提高. 通过对磨斑表面进行扫描电镜分析证明这类离子液体具有优异的抗磨性能,通过EDS和XPS对磨斑表面的元素进行分析结果表明这类离子液体优异的摩擦学性能归因于离子液体结构中包含的N、P元素与金属基底发生摩擦化学反应所形成的具有优异减摩抗磨特性的摩擦化学反应膜.      

Drag reduction effectiveness and shear stability of polymer-polymer and polymer-fibre mixtures in recirculatory turbulent flow of water

The turbulent drag reduction caused by polymer-polymer and polymerfibre mixtures has been measured in recirculatory flow of water. Shear stability studies have also been made on a number of drag reducing polymers, asbestos fibres and their mixtures in recirculatory turbulent flow of water. Reynolds numbers ranged from 20,000 to 57,000. Both positive and negative deviations from linear additive behaviour have been observed in drag reduction caused by the polymer-polymer mixtures depending upon their compositions, flow rate and polymer species in the mixture. The drag reduction by the mixtures has been predicted by using simple mixture rule equations including an interaction parameter. This interaction parameter is believed to depend upon the polymer interaction in the polymer mixture. The random coil size and rigidity of the polymer molecules appear to be responsible for the synergism observed in the drag reduction caused by the mixture. In general, mixtures having larger solvation number seem to give positive synergism.Synergism in drag reduction by the polymer-fibre mixtures has also been observed. The simple mixture law equation with interaction parameter is also applicable in predicting the drag reduction by the mixtures as above. The random coil size of the polymer molecules and the rigidity of the polymer-fibre system appear to be responsible for the synergism observed in drag reduction. In the shearstability studies it has been observed that the decrement in drag reduction (DR) is higher than the the decrement in absolute viscosity in most cases. Carboxymethyl cellulose is found to be the most shear stable polymer followed by guar gum, xanthan gum and polyacrylamide. The mixtures exhibiting synergism in causing drag reduction are found to be more shear stable.     

Degradation of homogeneous polymer solutions in high shear turbulent pipe flow

This study quantifies degradation of polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polyacrylamide (PAM) polymer solutions in large diameter (2.72 cm) turbulent pipe flow at Reynolds numbers to 3 × 10⁵ and shear rates greater than 10⁵ 1/s. The present results support a universal scaling law for polymer chain scission reported by Vanapalli et al. (2006) that predicts the maximum chain drag force to be proportional to Re ^3/2, validating this scaling law at higher Reynolds numbers than prior studies. Use of this scaling gives estimated backbone bond strengths from PEO and PAM of 3.2 and 3.8 nN, respectively. Additionally, with the use of synthetic seawater as a solvent the onset of drag reduction occurred at higher shear rates relative to the pure water solvent solutions, but had little influence on the extent of degradation at higher shear rates. These results are significant for large diameter pipe flow applications that use polymers to reduce drag.     

Drag reduction by centrally-injected polymer “threads”

In the extensive literature on polymer drag reduction, it has occasionally been reported that a continuous thread of a high-concentration polymer solution injected into the axis of a pipe produces a drag-reduction effect on the water-flow in the pipe. The “thread” seems to persist through the length of the pipe and little if any diffusion of polymer to the walls of the pipe is apparent. All previous experiments have been at a relatively low Reynolds number, and the purpose of the present work was to evaluate the technique at pipe Reynolds numbers above 10⁵. Experiments were carried out in a 53 mm diameter stainless steel pipe 20 m in length, constructed to high tolerances. The polymer, Separan AP-203, was injected as a 0.5% solution from an axially placed nozzle at the bellmouth entrance. The experiments show that the central thread provided drag-reduction almost equivalent to pre-mixed solutions of the same total polymer concentration flowing in the pipe. Overall concentrations of 1, 2, 4, and 20 parts-per-million were used. Moreover, the effects were additive: 2 ppm thread overall concentration plus 2 ppm pre-mixed gave drag reductions equivalent to 4 ppm of either type. Reynolds numbers of up to 300 000 were investigated. Attempts to visualize the polymer thread were inconclusive. The dyed polymer thread was viewed through a window at the downstream end of the pipe. The predominate appearance was that of a dispersion of globules of high-concentration polymer.     

Flow and heat transfer characteristics of drag reducing surfactant solution in a helically coiled pipe

The reduction characteristic of turbulent drag and heat transfer of drag reduction surfactant solution flowing in a helically coiled pipe were experimentally investigated. The drag reduction surfactant used in the present study was the amine oxide type nonionic surfactant of oleyldihydroxyethylamineoxide (ODEAO, C₂₂H₄₅NO₃=371). The zwitterion surfactant of cetyldimethylaminoaciticacidbetaine (CDMB, C₂₀H₄₁NO₂=327) was added by 10% to the ODEAO solution in order to avoid the chemical degradation of ODEAO by ionic impurities in a test tape water. The experiments of flow drag and heat transfer reduction were carried out in the helically coiled pipe of coil to pipe diameter ratio of 37.5 and the helically coiled pipe length to pipe diameter of 1180.5 (pipe diameter of 14.4 mm) at various concentrations, temperatures and flow velocities of the ODEAO surfactant solution. The ODEAO solution showed a non-Newtonian behavior at high concentration of the ODEAO. From the experimental results, it was observed that the friction factor of the ODEAO surfactant solution flowing through the coiled pipe was decreased to a great extent in comparison with water as a Newtonian fluid in the turbulent flow region. Heat transfer measurements for water and the ODEAO solution were performed in both laminar and turbulent flow regions under the uniform heat flux boundary condition. The heat transfer coefficients for the ODEAO solution flow were the same as water flow in the laminar region. On the other hand, heat transfer reduction of the ODEAO solution flow was remarkedly reduced as compared with that of the water flow in the turbulent flow region.     

Solutions of xanthan gum/guar gum mixtures: shear rheology,porous media flow,and solids transport in annular flow

Mixtures of xanthan and guar gum in aqueous solution were studied in two flow situations: simple shear and porous media. In addition, solids transport in vertical annular flow of sand suspensions was explored. The zero shear rate viscosity of the solutions displayed a pronounced synergy: the viscosity of the mixture is higher than that of the polymer solutions in a wide range of relative concentrations of the two polymers, in agreement with previous literature. However, at relatively high shear rates, the viscosity approaches the value of the more viscous xanthan gum solutions at mass fractions of xanthan gum between 0.1 and 0.15, and the degree of synergy substantially decreases. Stress relaxation experiments in simple shear indicate that the polymer mixtures exhibit a well-defined yield stress after relaxation that is absent in solutions of pure polymers. In porous media flow experiments, a synergistic behavior mimicking the shear flow results was obtained for the polymer mixtures at low shear rates. However, at a critical shear rate, the apparent viscosity in porous media flows exceeds the shear viscosity due to the elongational nature of flow in the pores. The solids transport capacity in annular flows is well-represented by trends in shear viscosity and stress relaxation behavior. However, the lack of viscosity synergy at high shear rates limits the applicability of the mixtures as a way to improve solids suspension capacity in annular flows.     

Tribological behavior of the boron succinimide on cylinder liner and piston ring surfaces

In this study, tribological performances of two types of anti-wear additive, boron succinimide anti-wear package and ZnDTPs, were investigated in the cylinder liner and piston ring tribological system with a reciprocating tribotest machine. The tribological performances of oils were evaluated in three main contexts including wear rates, surface tribofilm formation and friction. Results showed that NP-3 (boron succinimide containing) lubrication oil which was environment and catalyst friendly, can be an alternative lubrication oil with its tribological performance due to its friction and wear reduction capacity.     

The effect of a zwitterionic and cationic surfactant in turbulent flows

A zwitterionic and a cationic surfactant were compared concerning their effectiveness in drag reduction. Both reach even lower friction factors than can be determined by the known maximum drag reduction asymptote in polymers. It is shown that both the maximum effectiveness and the range of surfactant activity depend not only on the temperature and concentration of the solution, but also on the length of the direct entering section and on the quality of water. The influence of the particular locality of the flow rate regulation is also notified. Received: 1 December 1999/Accepted: 30 April 2000     

The effect of solvent solubility parameter on turbulent flow drag reduction in polyisobutylene solutions

Drag reduction is the effective reduction of the fluid flow friction brought about by the addition of small amounts of dissolved polymer, suspended particles, or emulsions. This study has focused on the turbulent-flow drag reduction effected by small amounts (10 ^-6–10 ^-3 g/ml) of polyisobutylene dissolved in organic solvents of varying solubility parameters. The data show that a maximum drag reduction (up to 70% for Reynolds numbers of 20,000) occurs in solvents with a solubility parameter near that of the polymer.     

表面活性剂减阻水溶液突扩流的阻力特性

为揭示胶束水溶液突扩流的减阻特性,实验研究了质量分数为1×10-4, 2 ×10-4的十六烷基三甲基溴化铵水溶液通过管径比为1:1.52的突扩的流动阻力行为. 实验结果表明,在直管段最大减阻率都可达到70%的两给定质量分数的胶束水溶液,其突扩局部阻力系数,在较低雷诺数区域,较牛顿流体仅有10%~20%程度的降低,呈现局部低减阻特性;在较高雷诺数区域远大于牛顿流体,尤其当突扩进口流快失去减阻能力时,甚至接近牛顿流体的1.5倍,呈现明显的局部增阻行为. 胶束水溶液减阻流,在突扩下游再次形成充分发展流所需的下游长度,远大于牛顿流体的7.8倍下游管径(45倍突扩台阶高度),流入突扩前完全失去减阻能力的质量分数为2×10-4的胶束水溶液流,所需的突扩下游长度达到最大,约合158倍下游管径(920倍突扩台阶高度). 通过胶束水溶液流变特性的实验分析认为,减阻水溶液突扩流的阻力行为与它的胶束网联结构的形成及松弛的时间特性密切相关.      

Experiments in Turbulent Pipe Flow with Polymer Additives at Maximum Drag Reduction

In this paper we report on (two-component) LDV experiments in a fully developed turbulent pipe flow with a drag-reducing polymer (partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide) dissolved in water. The Reynolds number based on the mean velocity, the pipe diameter and the local viscosity at the wall is approximately 10000. We have used polymer solutions with three different concentrations which have been chosen such that maximum drag reduction occurs. The amount of drag reduction found is 60–70%. Our experimental results are compared with results obtained with water and with a very dilute solution which exhibits only a small amount of drag reduction. We have focused on the observation of turbulence statistics (mean velocities and turbulence intensities) and on the various contributions to the total shear stress. The latter consists of a turbulent, a solvent (viscous) and a polymeric part. The polymers are found to contribute significantly to the total stress. With respect to the mean velocity profile we find a thickening of the buffer layer and an increase in the slope of the logarithmic profile. With respect to the turbulence statistics we find for the streamwise velocity fluctuations an increase of the root mean square at low polymer concentration but a return to values comparable to those for water at higher concentrations. The root mean square of the normal velocity fluctuations shows a strong decrease. Also the Reynolds (turbulent) shear stress and the correlation coefficient between the stream wise and the normal components are drastically reduced over the entire pipe diameter. In all cases the Reynolds stress stays definitely non-zero at maximum drag reduction. The consequence of the drop of the Reynolds stress is a large polymer stress, which can be 60% of the total stress. The kinetic-energy balance of the mean flow shows a large transfer of energy directly to the polymers instead of the route by turbulence. The kinetic energy of the turbulence suggests a possibly negative polymeric dissipation of turbulent energy. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The role of elongational viscosity in the mechanism of drag reduction by polymer additives

The role of elongational viscosity in the mechanism of drag reduction by polymer additives is investigated qualitatively by means of direct numerical simulations of a turbulent pipe flow. For the polymer solution, a generalised Newtonian constitutive model is utilised in which the viscosity depends on the second and third invariant of the rate-of-strain tensor via an elongation parameter. This elongation parameter is capable of identifying elongational type of regions within the flow. The simulations show that complementary to stretching of the polymers, also compression must be incorporated to have drag reduction, contrary to many suggestions done in the literature on the mechanism which assume that stretching of the polymers is most important.     

Polymer Induced Drag Reduction in a Turbulent Pipe Flow Subjected to a Coriolis Force

The skin friction factor f in a turbulent wall-bounded flow can be greatly reduced by using polymer solutions. In this paper we discuss experimental results on the effect of the Coriolis force on turbulent drag reduction. To study this, a horizontal smooth-walled pipe with internal diameter 25?mm is placed on a horizontal table rotating about its vertical axis. The rotation is made non-dimensional with friction velocity and pipe diameter, to form the Rotation number Ro. For a range of bulk Rotation number (Ro _b ) between 0 and 0.6 for two different Reynolds numbers (Re _b = 15 & 30 × 10³), the pressure drop is measured, from which the average friction factor f is obtained. Additionally the effect of four different polymer concentrations has been investigated. The single-phase results show that the friction factor increases monotonic but gradual with Rotation. With polymer additives a drag reduction is found that increases with concentration, but which is not affected by the rotation.     

On the Repeatability of Friction and Wear Tests for Polyimides in a Hertzian Line Contact

Tribological properties for polymers are mainly experimentally determined, while few standards are available and variation in data is often large. Polyimide is slid against steel on a cylinder-on-plate tribotester at 50–200 N and 0.3 m/s. There is a statistical variation of ±7% on dynamic friction, ±10% on static friction, ±8% on wear rates from weight loss and ±12% from wear rates from dimensional measurements, or even higher at high normal loads. Different parameters influencing statistical repeatability are discussed. Friction for polymers shows higher variation and wear rates show lower variation than steel/steel pairs due to visco-elastic deformation that has a contribution to friction but reduces stress concentrations. It is experimentally verified that the visco-elastic deformation of polymers in line contact is higher than calculated from theoretical models. The role of recoverable and permanent deformation is verified and there is a difference in deformation at 50–100 N and 150–200 N revealed from static loading tests, creep tests and wear measurements. The limit between running-in and steady-state coincides with the stabilization in contact pressures after 250 μm diameter reduction. Besides test rig design, a variation in counterface roughness seems the second most important influence.