The effect of the distance between acidic site and basic site immobilized on mesoporous solid on the activity in catalyzing aldol condensation

Acid-base bifunctional heterogeneous catalysts containing carboxylic and amine groups, which were immobilized at defined distance from one another on the mesoporous solid were synthesized by immobilizing lysine onto carboxyl-SBA-15. The obtained materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), N₂ adsorption, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron micrographs (SEM), transmission electron micrographs (TEM), elemental analysis, and back titration. Proximal-C-A-SBA-15 with a proximal acid-base distance was more active than maximum-C-A-SBA-15 with a maximum acid-base distance in aldol condensation reaction between acetone and various aldehydes. It appears that the distance between acidic site and basic site immobilized on mesoporous solid should be an essential factor for catalysis optimization.     

Continuous Flow Pickering Emulsion Catalysis in Droplet Microfluidics Studied with In Situ Raman Microscopy

Pickering emulsions (PEs), emulsions stabilized by solid particles, have shown to be a versatile tool for biphasic catalysis. Here, we report a droplet microfluidic approach for flow PE (FPE) catalysis, further expanding the possibilities for PE catalysis beyond standard batch PE reactions. This microreactor allowed for the inline analysis of the catalytic process with in situ Raman spectroscopy, as demonstrated for the acid-catalyzed deacetalization of benzaldehyde dimethyl acetal to form benzaldehyde. Furthermore, the use of the FPE system showed a nine fold improvement in yield compared to the simple biphasic flow system (FBS), highlighting the advantage of emulsification. Finally, FPE allowed an antagonistic set of reactions, the deacetalization–Knoevenagel condensation, which proved less efficient in FBS due to rapid acid-base quenching. The droplet microfluidic system thus offers a versatile new extension of PE catalysis.     

Reconstructed hydrotalcite as a highly active heterogeneous base catalyst for carbon-carbon bond formations in the presence of water

The aldol reaction of carbonyl compounds is efficiently catalyzed by reconstructed hydrotalcites, obtained by treating the Mg-Al mixed oxide with water, as solid base catalysts in the presence of water. The catalysis of the reconstructed hydrotalcites is attributable to the surface base sites, created during the organization of the layered structure, with uniformly distributed strength. Furthermore, the reconstructed hydrotalcites provide a unique acid-base bifunctional surface capable of promoting the Knoevenagel and Michael reactions of nitriles with carbonyl compounds.     

Metal–Organic Frameworks: Opportunities for Catalysis

The role of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) in the field of catalysis is discussed, and special focus is placed on their assets and limits in light of current challenges in catalysis and green chemistry. Their structural and dynamic features are presented in terms of catalytic functions along with how MOFs can be designed to bridge the gap between zeolites and enzymes. The contributions of MOFs to the field of catalysis are comprehensively reviewed and a list of catalytic candidates is given. The subject is presented from a multidisciplinary point of view covering solid‐state chemistry, materials science, and catalysis.     

First kinetic discrimination between carbon and oxygen reactivity of enols

Nitrosation of enols shows a well-differentiated behavior depending on whether the reaction proceeds through the carbon (nucleophilic catalysis is observed) or the oxygen atom (general acid-base catalysis is observed). This is due to the different operating mechanisms for C- and O-nitrosation. Nitrosation of acetylacetone (AcAc) shows a simultaneous nucleophilic and acid-base catalysis. This simultaneous catalysis constitutes the first kinetic evidence of two independent reactions on the carbon and oxygen atom of an enol. The following kinetic study allows us to determine the rate constants for both reaction pathways. A similar reactivity of the nucleophilic centers with the nitrosonium ion is observed.     

Acid-base bifunctional and dielectric outer-sphere effects in heterogeneous catalysis: a comparative investigation of model primary amine catalysts

Dielectric and acid-base bifunctional effects are elucidated in heterogeneous aminocatalysis using a synthetic strategy based on bulk silica imprinting. Acid-base cooperativity between silanols and amines yields a bifunctional catalyst for the Henry reaction that forms alpha,beta-unsaturated product via quasi-equilibrated iminium intermediate. Solid-state UV/vis spectroscopy of catalyst materials treated with salicylaldehyde demonstrates zwitterionic iminium ion to be the thermodynamically preferred product in the bifunctional catalyst. This product is observed to a much lesser extent relative to its neutral imine tautomer in primary amine catalysts having outer-sphere silanols partially replaced by aprotic functional groups. One of these primary amine catalysts, consisting of a polar outer-sphere environment derived from cyano-terminated capping groups, has activity comparable to that of the bifunctional catalyst in the Henry reaction, but instead forms the beta-nitro alcohol product in high selectivity (approximately 99%). This appears to be the first observation of selective alcohol formation in primary amine catalysis of the Henry reaction. A primary amine catalyst with a methyl-terminated outer-sphere also produces alcohol, albeit at a rate that is 50-fold slower than the cyano-terminated catalyst, demonstrating that outer-sphere dielectric constant affects catalyst activity. We further investigate the importance of organizational effects in enabling acid-base cooperativity within the context of bifunctional catalysis, and the unique role of the solid surface as a macroscopic ligand to impose this cooperativity. Our results unequivocally demonstrate that reaction mechanism and product selectivity in heterogeneous aminocatalysis are critically dependent on the outer-sphere environment.     

Application of catalysts for producing organic compounds from plant biomass

Experimental data on acid-base and oxidation-reduction catalysis in the conversion of wood carbohydrates and lignin to levoglucosenone, levulinic acid, aromatic aldehydes and other fine chemicals are presented and discussed.     

Bifunctional and monofunctional catalysis in the CNDO/2 approximation: Formamidine acid-base and base catalysed 1,3-proton transfers in propene

The bifunctional acid-base and monofunctional base catalysis by formamidine of 1,3-proton transfer reactions in propene has been studied with the CNDO/2 MO-method. Energy profiles for both types of catalysis were studied, and no reaction intermediate was found in either case. In agreement with orbital correlation considerations, bifunctional catalysis is preferred over monofunctional catalysis. Comparison is made with another reaction in which simultaneous transfer of two protons occurs. The mechanism of bifunctional monofunctional catalysis is discussed.     

二氧化铈催化剂的氧化还原和酸碱性质的原位光谱表征

二氧化铈作为催化剂、催化剂载体和助剂被广泛应用于各类氧化还原的催化反应中,是多相催化领域中至关重要的金属氧化物.氧化铈因具有丰富的缺陷结构、较强的氧化还原能力以及异常的酸碱功能等独特性质,在催化领域中非常重要.在分子层面上理解氧化铈的储氧能力、氧化还原效应和酸碱性质对建立催化构效关系尤为重要,是有效合理地改善和设计铈基催化材料的关键.在诸多的表征手段中,光谱在氧化铈结构和表面性质的研究中显示出无可争议的优势,可以提供原子和分子层面的化学信息.本文总结了各种光谱方法(包括光学、X射线、中子、电子和核磁谱学)对氧化铈表面性质表征的研究进展.分析了直接光谱表征及其与探针分子耦合两种方法在氧化铈表征中的应用;归纳了预处理条件、氧化铈纳米粒子的形貌和尺寸对其表面位点的性质、强度和密度的影响.最后展望了如何利用反应条件下的原位光谱来更好地理解和揭示铈基材料的催化作用机制的可能性.     

自旋催化剂-量子触发化学反应

当初始态和过渡态之间存在能量差时,通常会考虑用催化的方法来增加反应速率,即经由能量更低过渡态的反应路径,或增加反应物初始态能量,如改变溶剂或在特殊表面吸附分子。然而,对于某些类型的反应,如H2和O2反应生成水, NO的氧化等,仅仅采用这些方法还不够,因为反应物和产物具有不同的自旋态,而自旋守恒定律一般会禁止该过程的发生。即使克服了能垒,该体系也不能转化成稳定的产物,且不改变其电子自旋多重态。但在特殊的非热力学条件下,该类反应仍可发生。这通常指自旋不守恒的过程。改变体系电子自旋最直接的方法是与原子核自旋有作用的电子自旋翻转。它可由自旋-轨道耦合来实现,因此,其实现的几率取决于元素的原子数。从3d金属开始,发生这种情况的可能性甚至更大。这是由于与d轨道耦合的效率更高所致,所以采用自旋交叉就能方便地解释自旋禁止反应发生的原因。然而,轻原子发生自旋翻转的可能性很低,因此,当面对无金属化学时,我们应该考虑自旋禁止反应发生的第二个方法—自旋催化。通过帮助克服自旋禁止的物质以促进化学反应,或通过顺磁催化剂诱导自旋解耦以降低活化能垒,这类现象就可定义为自旋催化。简而言之,为了得到想要的和热力学更有利的自旋态,一个反应粒子可以与自旋催化剂交换磁矩;该自旋催化剂需有拟自旋-简并基态或低激发态。因此,体系整个的自旋仍守恒,但可发生反应。值得强调的是,自旋“催化剂”指的是分子状态和固体状态,通常后者应用于工业中则方便得多。自旋催化是作为自旋化学的范例来研究的,或在外磁场中化学诱导动态核极化和反应,主要是指采用EPR光谱研究以液相为主的过程。本文简略介绍了自旋催化的理论。实际上,自旋催化与常规催化之间并不相互抵触—相同的材料既可作为自旋催化剂,也可用作常规催化剂,都起着降低反应能垒和提供自旋交换的自由基中心的作用。另外,许多现代材料包含着常规催化剂和自旋催化剂的特性。有些发生在多核磁性金属中心上的过程可能本身就包含着常规催化(活化底物)、自旋交叉(与d金属相互作用)和自旋催化(金属-氧簇合物中低能的铁磁-反铁磁转化)效应。气相自旋催化在实际应用中产生的主要问题是在稀释的体系中三粒子碰撞几率低,常规催化在这方面则有很多优势。我们首先列出固体成为自旋催化剂的条件：(1)活性中心中至少2个自旋态的能量差要小于反应温度下热运动的能量,这样无需额外的能量活化催化剂;(2)较大的比表面积以提供更多的自旋中心用于相互作用;(3)最好能够自旋导电,在此情况下反应无需三粒子碰撞即可发生。这是因为自由基可通过催化剂的电子系统交换自旋,使得自旋-自旋相互作用的几率迅速增加,从而有利于自旋催化反应的进行。另外,如果固体或载体具有自旋导电性,则无需外加电场或磁场,即有可能遥控催化中心的电荷和自旋态,从而避免使用外电场或磁场。实际上,许多反应过程本身就包含着自旋催化,它还可使反应过程的许多不足变成优势,如对于不需要的链式自由基反应;通过引入自旋捕获剂使得自旋禁止反应成为有用的自旋催化;磁性粒子的浓度以及外加磁场和电场均可导致自旋催化/禁止反应。由于均相自旋催化的研究较早,在此不再赘述。本文详细介绍了多相体系中的自旋催化的应用,如燃烧、温和氧化、环化、开环、非极性小分子的活化和不稳定自由基的耦合等。可能用作自旋催化剂的材料有：含有不同顺磁性的金属离子的磁性氧化物或多核磁性簇合物;嫁接在一些载体上的多核络合物或过渡金属(低温催化);带有非整数氧化价态的导电金属;各种具有半金属性和导电性的碳材料。研究自旋催化反应的一个突出问题就是这些过程大部分是自由基式的,趋于非线性区域,因而很难预测,也没有一个便利的工具用以描述,甚至预测自旋催化反应,但也许这些研究的特点就是不可预测性。自旋催化除了可调变反应的进行,我们还可从中获得一个独特的调节手段：通过外加磁场或电场触发基元过程,在非热力学上控制反应的进行。该手段在控制化学反应方面具有明显优势,因为现在大都是通过调节温度、压力和流量等参数来实现对化学反应的控制,且滞后严重。同时,通过添加外加磁场可立刻改变反应速率。另外,通过降温可精细控制基元反应,从而开辟了一种抑制副反应的方法,因而也使得反应的随机性降低。     

Envisioning an enzymatic Diels-Alder reaction by in situ acid-base catalyzed diene generation

We present and evaluate a new and potentially efficient route for enzyme-mediated Diels-Alder reactions, utilizing general acid-base catalysis. The viability of employing the active site of ketosteroid isomerase is demonstrated.     

Determination of carbon dioxide evolution rates using a novel noninstrumental microrespirometer

A novel noninstrumental microrespirometer was developed to determine carbon dioxide evolution rates of solid or liquid samples at microL/h levels accurately and rapidly. The respirometer is based on the simple principle of acid-base titration at a steady-state of carbon dioxide absorption/evolution. The structure and operation of the microrespirometer are simple and the cost is modest in comparison to instrumental methods. The microrespirometer is suitable for laboratory studies and field routine examinations of food, agricultural, and environmental samples.     

The mechanism of acid-base catalysis

New concepts of the mechanism of acid-base catalysis are developed, incorporating electron transfer in low-lying electronic excited states of the reagent-catalysts complex. In base catalysis, the base-catalyst lowers the ionization potential of one of the reagents, the proton and electron dnor, and thereby lowers the energy of the excited level. Acid catalysis consists in intensifying the electron-accepting properties of the reagent acting as an electron acceptor.Published to initiate discussion.Institute of High-Molecular-Weight Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. Translated from Teoreticheskaya i Éksperimental'naya Khimiya, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 710–715, November–December, 1991. Original article submitted July 13, 1987.     

官能团化的手性联芳基单齿膦配体在不对称均相金催化反应中的应用

自2005年以来, 不对称均相金催化反应研究取得了显著的进展, 并在有机合成中得到了广泛应用. 近年来, 官能团化的联芳基单齿膦配体在金催化反应中显露头角, 为不对称金催化反应提供了新的发展思路. 本文综合评述了这一领域的研究进展, 着重介绍了近年来利用这类配体实现的金催化不对称反应及反应过程中配体与底物间相互作用.     

Electron and proton transfer in acid-base catalysis

The role of electron and proton transfer in acid-base catalysis is discussed, with two reactions as examples, in one of which (polymerization of cyclobutenes) an acid, and in another (nitramide decomposition), a base acts as the catalyst.     

Photochemical Smiles rearrangement and Meisenheimer complex formation catalyzed by hydroxide ion via electron hole transfer catalysis

[reactions: see text] Photochemical para-to-nitro Smiles rearrangement and para-to-nitro Meisenheimer complex formation occurs for nitrophenoxyethylamines with high concentrations of hydroxide ion in aqueous solution. Both photoreactions show first-order dependence on hydroxide ion concentration, but the mechanism involving hydroxide ion does not involve acid-base catalysis. The reactions take place from the triplet excited states of the nitrophenyl ethers. Analysis of quantum yields and kinetics is consistent with an electron hole transfer catalysis mechanism.     

有序介孔材料: 历史、 现状与发展趋势

有序介孔材料是指孔径在2~50 nm之间的多孔材料, 是一类具有均匀孔径、 高有序度纳米孔道和高比表面积的新材料. 在过去30年里, 有序介孔材料的研究取得了长足的进步, 在可控合成、 结构设计和调控及功能化等方面形成了系统的理论. 同时, 其应用领域也不断被拓展, 包括能源存储与转化、 催化、 生物医药和传感等方面. 本文首先回顾了有序介孔材料的发展历史, 简要介绍发展过程中“里程碑式”的研究工作; 然后根据构效关系总结了其在不同领域应用的最新进展; 最后讨论了有序介孔材料领域进一步发展所面临的挑战与机遇, 并对未来前景进行了展望.     

Cooperative catalysis by silica-supported organic functional groups

Hybrid inorganic-organic materials comprising organic functional groups tethered from silica surfaces are versatile, heterogeneous catalysts. Recent advances have led to the preparation of silica materials containing multiple, different functional groups that can show cooperative catalysis; that is, these functional groups can act together to provide catalytic activity and selectivity superior to what can be obtained from either monofunctional materials or homogeneous catalysts. This tutorial review discusses cooperative catalysis of silica-based catalytic materials, focusing on the cooperative action of acid-base, acid-thiol, amine-urea, and imidazole-alcohol-carboxylate groups. Particular attention is given to the effect of the spatial arrangement of these organic groups and recent developments in the spatial organization of multiple groups on the silica surface.     

Solid Acid-Base Control of Inorganic/Organic Hybrids by Inorganic Components for Molecule-Selectivity

Solid acid-base properties of methylsiloxane-based inorganic/organic hybrids were controlled by incorporation of inorganic components other than Si into methylsiloxane networks. The effect of different inorganic components on the solid acid-base properties was estimated by first-principles calculations based on density functional theory (DFT). The deprotonation tends to occur in the order Si < Al < Nb inorganic components, suggesting that the acidity increases in the same order. Methylsiloxane-based hybrids with solid acid-base properties were also synthesized by incorporating inorganic components derived from metal alkoxides. Hammett indicators revealed that the solid acidity increased in the order Si < Al < Nb inorganic components, which was consistent with the results of first-principles calculations. Preliminary experiments revealed that the methylsiloxane-based hybrids also provided a solid basic nature by containing Ca and Y inorganic components derived from metal alkoxides. The acidic hybrids were found to have Brønsted acid sites from the FT-IR experiments of adsorbed pyridine on the hybrids.     

Molecular dynamics prediction of the mechanism of ester hydrolysis in water

Hydrolysis reactions of the basic units of biological polymers with water, or the reverse reaction, the formation of ester, amide, ketal, or phosphate bonds, occur with very high activation barriers in the gas phase but occur much more rapidly in pure water. Car-Parrinello molecular dynamics simulations reported here show that the rate of hydrolysis of methyl formate in pure water is consistent with mechanisms involving cooperative catalysis by autoionization-generated hydroxide and hydronium, a process known to have an activation free energy of 23.8 kcal/mol. In this mechanism, autoionization is followed by rapid simultaneous acid-base catalysis.