Development of a novel high speed (electron-mobility) epi-n-ZnO thin films by L-MBE for III–V opto-electronic devices

Intrinsic epitaxial zinc oxide (epi-ZnO) thin films were grown by laser-molecular beam epitaxy (L-MBE), i.e., pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique using Johnson Matthey “specpure”-grade ZnO pellets. The effects of substrate temperatures on ZnO thin film growth, electrical conductivity (σ), mobility (μ) and carrier concentration (n) were studied. As well as the feasibility of developing high quality conducting oxide thin films was also studied simultaneously. The highest conductivity was found for optimized epi-ZnO thin films is σ=0.06×10³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻¹ (n-type) (which is almost at the edge of semiconductivity range), carrier density n=0.316×10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and mobility μ=98 cm²/V s. The electrical studies further confirmed the semiconductor characteristics of epi-n-ZnO thin films. The relationship between the optical and electrical properties were also graphically enumerated. The electrical parameter values for the films were calculated, graphically enumerated and tabulated. As a novelty point of view, we have concluded that without doping and annealing, we have obtained optimum electrical conductivity with high optical transparency (95%) for as deposited ZnO thin films using PLD. Also, this is the first time that we have applied PLD made ZnO thin films to iso-, hetero-semiconductor–insulator–semiconductor (SIS) type solar cells as transparent conducting oxide (TCO) window layer. We hope that surely these data be helpful either as a scientific or technical basis in the semiconductor processing.     

Electrical properties of Sb-doped epitaxial SnO2 thin films prepared using excimer-laser-assisted metal–organic deposition

Excimer-laser-assisted metal–organic deposition (ELAMOD) was used to prepare Sb-doped epitaxial (001) SnO₂ thin films on (001) TiO₂ substrates at room temperature. The effects of laser fluence, the number of shots with the laser, and Sb content on the electrical properties such as resistivity, carrier concentration, and carrier mobility of the films were investigated. The resistivity of the Sb-doped epitaxial (001) SnO₂ thin film prepared using an ArF laser was lower than that of the film prepared using a KrF laser. The van der Pauw method was used to measure the resistivity, carrier concentration, and carrier mobility of the Sb-doped epitaxial (001) SnO₂ thin films in order to determine the effect of Sb content on the electrical resistivity of the films. The lowest resistivity obtained for the Sb-doped epitaxial (001) SnO₂ thin films prepared using ELAMOD with the ArF laser and 2 % Sb content was 2.5 × 10^?3 Ω cm. The difference between the optimal Sb concentrations and resistivities of the films produced using either ELAMOD or conventional thermal MOD was discussed.     

Transparent conducting hybrid thin films fabricated by layer-by-layer assembly of single-wall carbon nanotubes and conducting polymers

The effect of conducting polymers on the performance of transparent conducting SWNT thin films fabricated by the layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly has been investigated. Transparent conducting SWNT thin films were fabricated by the LBL assembly in two ways, one using conducting polymers, PEDOT-PEG, and the other using non-conducting polymers, PAH, and their electrical and optical properties were compared. The sheet resistance of (PSS-SWNT/PEDOT-PEG) _n films is more than thrice lower than that of (PSS-SWNT/PAH) _n films for the same n while the decrease of optical transmittance due to the absorbance of PEDOT-PEG is fairly small (ca. 2?% at n=30). The conductivity ratio of the (PSS-SWNT/PEDOT-PEG)₃₀ is 3.3 times larger than that of the (PSS-SWNT/PAH)₃₀. These figures indicate that the performance of the transparent conducting SWNT thin films fabricated by the LBL assembly is highly improved by using conducting polymers instead of non-conducting ones.     

Electrical characteristics of poly(methylsilsesquioxane) thin films for non-volatile memory

In this communication the electrical characteristics of poly(methylsilsesquioxane) (PMSSQ) thin films and the possibility of charge storage in the Au nanoparticle embedded PMSSQ film base memory element have been studied. PMSSQ films were sandwiched between Al and Si electrodes to fabricate metal-polymer-semiconductor (MPS) structures. The conduction mechanism in PMSSQ films has been investigated. The charge transport mechanism appears to be space charge limited current (SCLC) at the higher-voltage region. Various electrical parameters such as reverse saturation current, barrier height, ideality factor, rectification ratio, shunt and series resistance and charge carrier mobility in PMSSQ have been determined. C-V analysis is performed to confirm the memory effect for Au nanoparticles embedded MPS structures. A definite clockwise hysteresis is observed which indicates the possibility of charge storage in the Au nanoparticles embedded PMSSQ film.     

Charge carrier transport in conducting polymers on the metal side of the metal-insulator transition: A review

The advances achieved in the field of the synthesis of conducting polymer films and the results of experimental investigations of the mechanism of charge carrier transport in heavily doped conducting polymer films on the metal side of the metal-insulator transition have been considered. The samples studied belong to the last generation of conducting polymers with a low degree of structural disorder, which makes it possible to dope samples to a highly conducting state characterized by an increased stability. Apart from the study of the morphology, structure, and doping conditions, the mechanism of low-temperature transport in these polymers has been investigated in detail. The results of investigations of the transport at low temperatures (T < 1 K) have been described, and a phenomenological model of charge carrier transfer in these systems has been proposed. The polymers under investigation have been widely used as injecting and accumulating layers in light-emitting organic diodes and solar cells.     

Interaction of oxygen (O+7) ion beam on polyaniline thin films

High-energy ion beam irradiation of the polymers is a good technique to modify the properties such as electrical conductivity, structural behaviour and mechanial properties. Polyaniline thin films doped with hydrochloric acid (HCl) were prepared by oxidation of ammonium persulphate. The effect of Swift Heavy Ions irradiation on the electrical and structural properties of polyaniline has been measured in this study. Polyaniline films were irradiated by oxygen ions (energy 80 MeV, charge state O⁺⁷) with fluence varying from 1 × 10¹⁰ to 3 × 10¹² ions/cm². The studies on electrical and structural properties of the irradiated polymers were investigated by measuring V-I using four probe set-up and X-ray diffraction (XRD) using Bruker AXS, X-ray powder diffractometer. V-I measurements shows an increase in the conductivity of the film, XRD pattern of the polymer shows that the crystallinity improved after the irradiation with Swift Heavy Ions (SHI), which could be attributed to cross linking mechanism.      

Wide band gap Cd0.83Mg0.15Al0.02O thin films by pulsed laser deposition

Magnesium and aluminum doped CdO thin films were deposited on quartz substrate using pulsed laser deposition technique. Magnesium is used to widen the band gap and aluminum is used to increase carrier concentration of CdO films. The effect of growth temperature on structural, optical, and electrical properties was studied. These films are crystalline in nature and their preferred orientation depends on growth temperature. These films are highly transparent (∼86%) in visible region. The band gap of the films varies from 3.1 eV to 3.4 eV. The electrical conductivity and carrier concentration were found to decrease with increase in growth temperature.     

Temperature and Thickness Effects on Electrical Properties of InP Films Deposited by Spray Pyrolysis

InP film samples are prepared by spray pyrolysis technique using aqueous solutions of InCl₃ and Na₂HPO₄, which are atomized with compressed air as carrier gas onto glass substrates at 500°C with different thicknesses of the films. The structural properties of the samples are determined by x-ray diffraction (XRD). It is found that the crystal structure of the InP films is polycrystalline hexagonal. The orientations of all the obtained films are along the c-axis perpendicular to the substrate. The electrical measurements of the samples are obtained by dc four-probe technique on rectangular-shape samples. The effects of temperature on the electrical properties of the InP films are studied in detail.     

Structure and electrical characteristics of ICBD C60 films

Polycrystalline C₆₀ films are deposited onto a variety of substrates by ionized cluster beam deposition (ICBD) technique. The structure of the ICBD C₆₀ films are studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The electrical characteristics of the ICBD C₆₀ films on silicon substrates are investigated by current-voltage (I–V) measurements. TheICBD C₆₀/p-Si and C₆₀/n-Si heterostructures show strong current rectification, which is analyzed using band theory.     

On the possibility of developing thermoelectric sensors based on multielement higher manganese silicide film structures

The possibility of designing thermoelectric sensors based on multielement structures of higher manganese silicide (HMS) polycrystalline films is considered. Test structures with various configurations are developed for studying electrical and thermoelectric parameters of polycrystalline HMS films. The geometrical sizes of the elements of test structures are chosen to match the grain size in polycrystalline HMS films. The test structures are prepared using the planar silicon technology. In these structures, the current-voltage characteristics, Hall constant, charge carrier concentration, and mobility are measured. The thermopower (α) and electrical conductivity (σ) are studied in a temperature range of T = 77–600 K, where α > 250 μV/K and electrical conductivity σ ∼ 20 (Ω cm)⁻¹. It is shown that the sensitivity and thermopowers increase upon a decrease in the cross-sectional area of the elements.     

AC electrical properties of proton irradiated EVA films

MeV ions passing through polymeric films modify their electrical, optical and thermal properties and these changes are related to changes in the chemical structure of the polymers. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) films were irradiated with 3 MeV proton beam at different fluences of 10¹³, 10¹⁴ and 10¹⁵ ions/cm². AC electrical properties of pristine and irradiated samples were studied in the frequency range 100 Hz to 100 kHz by means of an LCR meter. There is an exponential increase in conductivity with log frequency and conductivity increases as fluence increases. The dielectric loss/constant is observed to change with the fluence. FTIR spectra reveals significant change in intensities of functional groups at a fluence of 10¹⁵ ions/cm² due to scissioning of polymer chains.     

Polyimides Containing Azobenzene Side Units: Properties and Correlation with Conformational Parameters

Two series of aromatic polyimides differing by the bridging group between imide rings, polymers a, b, and c, having C?O linkages and polymers d, e, and f, having C(CF₃)₂ groups, have been obtained by polycondensation reaction of aromatic dianhydrides with aromatic diamines containing substituted azobenzene groups. These polymers with good solubility in polar amidic solvents, were able to form transparent flexible films and showed high thermal stability. Conformational parameters of the polymers were calculated by the Monte Carlo method with allowance for hindered rotation. Several physical properties of these polymers, such as solubility, glass transition temperature (T_g), and initial decomposition temperature (T_onset) were measured and discussed in relation to the volume factor of the macromolecular chains. The volume factor is equal to ratio of the Van der Waals volume of the pendent group to the Van der Waals volume of the repeating unit of the main chain.     

Effects of H2 ambient annealing in fully 0 0 2-textured ZnO:Ga thin films grown on glass substrates using RF magnetron co-sputter deposition

Gallium doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Ga) thin films were grown on glass substrates using RF magnetron co-sputtering, followed by H₂ ambient annealing at 623 K to explore a possibility of steady and low-cost process for fabricating transparent electrodes. While it was observed that the ZnO:Ga thin films were densely packed c-axis oriented self-textured structures, in the as-deposited state, the films contained Ga₂O₃ and ZnGa₂O₄ which had adverse effect on the electrical properties. On the other hand, post-annealing in H₂ ambient improved the electrical properties significantly via reduction of Ga₂O₃ and ZnGa₂O₄ to release elemental Ga which subsequently acted as substitutional dopant increasing the carrier concentration by two orders of magnitude. Transmittance of the ZnO:Ga thin films were all over 90% that of glass while the optical band gap varied in accordance with the carrier concentrations due to changes in Fermi level. Experimental observation in this study suggests that transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films based on Ga doped ZnO with good electrical and optical properties can be realized via simple low-cost process.     

Preparation and Degradation Behaviors of Poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide-co-ε-caprolactone)/1,4-butanediamine Modified Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Blend Film

Abstract

Polymer blending is an attractive method for producing new polymer materials with excellent properties. In this work the blended polymers were prepared from poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide-co-ε-caprolactone) and 1,4-butanediamine modified poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLLGC/BMPLGA). The hydrophilicity was studied by static water contact angle tests. The in-vitro degradation behaviors of the PLLGC/BMPLGA blended films were investigated during various degradation periods. The results showed that the introduction of the PLLGC reduced the hydrophilicity and degradation rate of the blended polymers while improved the tensile strength and elongation percentage. Therefore, we suggest the blends of the PLLGC and BMPLGA could supply a potential biomaterial for application in the medical field for use as tissue engineering scaffolds or drug delivery.     

Electrical and photoelectrical studies of plasma polymerized acrylonitrile

The electrical and photoelectrical properties of plasma polymerized acrylonitrile (PAN) are reported. The polymer films were studied in silver-PAN-silver systems. Electrical conductivity at room temperature was of the order of 10⁻¹¹ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻¹. The space charge limited current (SCLC) studies at room temperature and thermally stimulated current studies (TSC) over a temperature range of 290–500°K led to a clear understanding of carrier concentration, carrier mobility, trapping levels and activation energies. Photoelectric measurements were used to draw a band picture in plasma depositedPAN.     

Electrical Conductivity in Polyazomethines: A Novel Mechanism Derived from All Valence MO Calculation and IR Study of Polymer–Dopant Interaction

A simple mechanism is proposed to explain the variation of electrical conductivity in polyazomethines. The results of semiempirical, all valence, molecular orbital calculations obtained from the PM3 method have been employed to arrive at the mechanism. The difference of energy (ΔE) between highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) alone could not explain the variation in electrical conductivity; however, ΔE together with the LUMO electron density at the atoms that lie on the continuous chain could account for the electrical conductivity in these polymers. The LUMO electron density on these centers may be visualized as the carrier movement. In certain polymers there are intrinsic holes in HOMO. The movement of these intrinsic holes also adds to the electrical conduction. The polyazomethines are prepared by the condensation of diamines with azo bis-aldehydes. A few of these polymers were doped with silver nanoparticles. Many of the doped polymers showed substantial enhancement in conductivity. Strong polymer–dopant interaction, identified by IR spectroscopy, is proposed to be responsible for the increase in conductivity.     

Comparative Study of Alternating Low-band-Gap Benzothiadiazole Co-oligomers

The benzothiadiazole – arylene alternating conjugated oligomers have been designed and synthesized via Suzuki coupling reaction. The structures and properties of the conjugated oligomers were characterized by ¹HNMR, ¹³CNMR, UV–vis absorption spectroscopy, photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The luminescent measurements demonstrate that polybenzothiadiazoles are good chromophores able to form thin films by Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique, making them suitable for further applications. Also the electrical properties of obtained films confirm the good potential of these novel aryl-based π-conjugated polymers for the development of various electrical and electrochemical solid-state devices.     

MAPLE-deposited polymer films for improved organic device performance

Matrix-assisted pulsed-laser evaporation (MAPLE) provides a mechanism for layer-by-layer growth to control the polymer–dielectric interface in organic metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) diodes and field-effect transistors (FETs). MAPLE-deposited copolymers of polyfluorene (PF) and polythiophene maintain their structural and optical properties, as determined by Raman spectroscopy, absorption, and photoluminescence. These films are further utilized in MIS and FET structures with SiO₂ and other polymer dielectrics. Since common polymer dielectrics prevent spin coating of solution processable polymers due to solubility effects, MAPLE is one of the only deposition techniques for investigating all polymer semiconductor-insulator interfaces. In this paper we present optical and electrical studies of MAPLE-deposited PF and polythiophene films in FETs and MIS structures. The FET carrier mobilities of these devices compare well with spin-coated devices. Capacitance–voltage and conductance–voltage from MIS structures with MAPLE-deposited PF copolymer films yield interface trap densities in the low 10¹² eV⁻¹ cm⁻² range.     

Influence of heat treatment on the electrophysical properties of thin films of copper-indium diselenide

An investigation of the structural, electrical, optical, and thermophysical properties is carried out on thin polycrystalline films of the ternary semiconductor CuInSe₂, which is potentially useful for fabricating solar cells. The thin films were obtained by thermal evaporation of CuInSe₂ and Se powder from two independent sources and by high-vacuum deposition in a closed cell (quasiequilibrium deposition). The influence of annealing in air on the parameters of the thin films is analyzed, and the dynamics of variation in the properties of the films are investigated as a function of the annealing time. Temperature dependences of the electrical conductivity, mobility, and thermal conductivity of CuInSe₂ thin films are given together with the spectral dependence of the short-circuit photocurrent of a photosensitive Au-CuInSe₂-Au structure. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 67, 34–38 (March 1997)     

Influence of polarity inversion on the electrical properties of Ga‐doped ZnO thin films

This study investigates how polarity inversion influences the relationship between the electrical properties of heavily Ga‐doped ZnO (GZO) films deposited by RF magnetron sputtering and their thickness. The electrical properties observed in very thin films are correlated with a change of polarity from O‐polar to Zn‐polar face upon increasing the film thickness based on results of valence band spectra measured by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy. It is found that the electrical properties of very thin GZO films deposited on Zn‐polar ZnO templates are significantly improved compared to those deposited on O‐polar face. A low resistivity of 2.62 × 10^–4 Ω cm, high Hall mobility of 26.9 cm²/V s, and high carrier concentration of 8.87 × 10²⁰ cm^–3 being achieved with 30 nm‐thick GZO films using Zn‐polar ZnO templates on a glass substrate. In contrast, the resistivity of 30 nm‐thick GZO films on bare glass that shows more likely O‐polar is very poor about 1.44 × 10^–3 Ω cm with mobility and carrier concentration are only 11.9 cm²/V s and 3.64 × 10²⁰ cm^–3, respectively. It is therefore proposed that polarity inversion plays an important role in determining the electrical properties of extremely thin GZO films. (© 2016 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)