Real-time measurement of glucose concentration and average refractive index using a laser interferometer

This study presents a non-destructive, highly precise optical metrology system for measuring the average refractive index of a liquid solution such that its glucose concentration can be derived. The metrology system is employed to measure the average refractive indices of samples with known glucose concentrations ranging from 0 to 200 g/l. By applying a regressional analysis technique to the experimental results, an analytical expression is derived to describe the relationship between the refractive index and the glucose concentration. An excellent agreement is observed between the experimentally determined values of the glucose concentration and the analytically derived results. For an assumed laser interferometer resolution of 1 nm, the measurement resolution of the proposed metrology system is found to be at least F=0.05 g/l, which is significantly better than that of F=2 g/l obtained using the polarimetric glucose sensor presented by Lo and Yu [A polarimetric glucose sensor using a liquid-crystal polarization modulator driven by a sinusoidal signal. Opt Commun, 2006; 259: 40–8].     

A high-precision measurement technique for evaluating alcohol concentrations using an optical metrology system based on a position sensing detector

This study develops a high-precision, non-destructive optical metrology system based on a position sensing detector for measuring the refractive index of a liquid solution such that its alcohol concentration can be derived. A series of experiments are performed to measure the refractive indices of samples of known alcohol concentrations in the range 0–99.5%. The experimental results indicate that the refractive index and the alcohol concentration are related by a quadratic function. According to this mathematical function, the refractive index of a sample with an alcohol concentration of 95% is n_95%=1.36442. The measured value of the refractive index of the same sample is found to be n_alcohol-95%=1.36587. The deviation of just 0.00145 between the two sets of results confirms the accuracy of the analytical prediction method. For a sample with a known alcohol concentration of 37%, the error between the analytically predicted concentration value and the actual value is found to be less than 0.7%. Overall, the results confirm that the proposed system provides a low-cost, straightforward and highly precise approach for measuring the alcohol concentration of liquid samples.     

High-resolution parallel multipass laser interferometer with an interference fringe spacing of 15 nm

We present a high-resolution laser interferometer based on the parallel multipass configuration with a pair of right-angle prisms to increase the optical fringe subdivision order up to 21. In the experiment, a multipass homodyne Michelson interferometer (MHMI) with the fringe spacing of 15 nm was demonstrated, resulting in the displacement measurement with a measurement resolution of 180 pm limited by the sampling rate of the employed analog-to-digital converter. We show that the ultimate resolution of the demonstrated MHMI scales with 1/N and it is estimated to be 8.7 pm for N = 21.     

In situ measurement of group refractive index using tandem low-coherence interferometer

The group refractive index of BK-7 glass material is accurately measured using a tandem low-coherence interferometer, which is composed of a Mychelson interferometer and a Fizeau interferometer, within a combined standard uncertainty of 8.4 ppm. The experimental results are compared with the value calculated from the conventional data base on the phase refractive index, within a difference of about 4.7 ppm. This new method is applicable to in situ measurement due to the principle of its common optical path.     

Temperature-independent optical fiber Fabry–Perot refractive-index sensor based on hollow-core photonic crystal fiber

A novel optical fiber refractive index (RI) sensor, which is based on an intrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometer (IFPI) formed by a section of hollow-core photonic crystal fiber (HCPCF) and standard single mode fibers (SMF), is proposed. The external refractive index is determined according to the maximum fringe contrast of the interference fringes in the reflective spectrum of the sensor. The RI response performance is demonstrated for the measurement of the different RI solutions. The experimental data agree well with the theoretical results. Also the RI resolution and repeatability of ∼1.5 × 10⁻⁵ and ±0.5% in the linear measurement region, are achieved. In addition, the temperature response is tested from 20 °C to 120 °C, which exhibits excellent thermal stability. Therefore, such an HCPCF-based F–P sensor provides a practical way to measure RI with non-temperature compensation.     

Linearization methods of laser interferometers for pico/nano positioning stages

Presented work introduces methods for improving linearity of a heterodyne laser interferometer system. The heterodyne configuration exhibits high potential in demanding applications, like pico/nano positioning. Those applications require superior accuracy, more difficult to obtain in a homodyne configuration of the laser interferometer. The homodyne setup is more susceptible to external light, variation of DC offset and higher noises, especially the 1/f noise. Those issues are filtered out in the heterodyne configuration. The main disadvantage of heterodyne setup are higher measurement nonlinearities. In this paper there are first introduced sources of nonlinearities and their impact on the overall accuracy. According to those findings there are proposed techniques to eliminate error caused by parasite beams, i.e. nonlinearities. Presented method is based on digital signal processing and is reliable and easy to use. In the shown approach the nonlinearities correction is completely automatic. Such system is applicable for X/Y positioning stages. Presented configuration of the laser interferometer is able to track the displacement with 100 pm resolution up to 7 m/s of translation velocity. The resolution can be improved to 10 pm by limitation of maximal velocity. In the paper there is confirmed that errors caused by nonlinearities are in range of ±0.6 nm. Achieved accuracy is comparable to capacitance gauges with presented laser interferometer having much better dynamic range.     

A simple reflection-type two-dimensional refractive index profile measurement technique for optical waveguides

We report a new configuration of a reflection-type confocal scanning optical microscope system for measuring the refractive index profile of an optical waveguide. Several improvements on the earlier design are proposed; a light emitting diode at 650 nm wavelength instead of a laser diode or He-Ne laser is used as a light source for better index precision, and a simple longitudinal linear scanning and a curve fitting techniques are adapted instead of a servo control for maintaining an optical confocal arrangement. We have obtained spatial resolution of 800 nm and an index precision of 2 × 10⁻⁴. To verify the system’s capability, the refractive index profiles of a conventional multimode fiber and a home-made four-mode fiber were examined with our proposed measurement method.     

A high-precision optical metrology system for determining the thickness of birefringent wave plates

This study develops a non-destructive measurement system for determining the thickness and refractive indices of birefringent optical wave plates. Compared to previous methods presented in the literature, the proposed metrology system provides the ability to measure the thickness of the birefringent optical plate in high-precision. The results show that for a commercially available birefringent optical wave plate with refractive indices of n_e=1.5518, n₀=1.5427 and a thickness of 452.1428 μm, the experimentally determined value for the error in the wave plate thickness measurement is just 0.046 μm. The measurement resolution of the proposed system exceeds that of the interferometer hardware itself. The proposed method provides a simple yet highly accurate means of measuring the principal optical parameters of birefringent glass wave plates.     

Full-field refractive index measurement with simultaneous phase-shift interferometry

Using the phenomenon of total internal reflection and a beam splitting device, a technique of simultaneous phase-shift interferometry is proposed for measuring the full-field refractive index. Because this method applies a beam splitting device that mimics the characteristics of beam splitting and phase modulation, four interferemetric images of various phase distributions can be simultaneously captured. Therefore, this setup can avoid errors caused by non-simultaneous capturing of images and offers the benefits of high stability, ease of operation, and real-time measurement. Furthermore, using the phenomenon of total internal reflection, the phase difference between p- and s-polarized light varies considerably with the refractive index of a tested specimen. This can substantially increase the measurement resolution. The feasibility of this method is verified using an experiment, and the measurement resolution can be higher than 3.65 × 10⁻⁴ RIU.     

Measurement of refractive index variation of liquids by surface plasmon resonance and wavelength-modulated heterodyne interferometry

In this study an alternative method based on surface plasmon resonance is proposed for in-situ monitoring of variation in the refractive index of a test sample. A wavelength-modulated light source and an unequal-path-length optical configuration heterodyne interferometer are used to detect the phase difference change, which can then be used to estimate the change in the refractive index of a test sample. The experimental results demonstrate a phase stability of 0.02°. The resolution power of the refractive index is 1.5 × 10^− 6 RIU. This method has several advantages over previously used methods such as simple optical setup, easier operation in real time, and low cost.     

基于法布里-珀罗干涉仪的液体浓度实时检测系统的研究

设计了一种对透明液体浓度进行高精度测量的动态跟踪系统。该系统根据液体的浓度与折射率关系以及折射率与光纤法布里珀罗(F-P)干涉仪干涉光波波长、级次之间关系,通过测量法布里珀罗干涉仪干涉级次的变化量,获得液体浓度的变化量。系统中光源选用He-Ne激光器,波长为632.8 nm,输出功率为2 mW,法布里珀罗干涉腔反射面的反射系数为0.9~0.95,平行度为(1/10~1/20)光波波长,平面度为(1/20~1/100)光波波长,接收干涉条纹的器件采用电荷耦合器件(CCD),对电荷耦合器件输出的信号进行二值化处理时采用阈值浮动措施,消除光强波动带来的测量误差。通过对一组不同浓度酒精进行测量,该系统可识别出0.01?的浓度变化。     

Line patterning with large refractive index changes in the deep inside of glass by nanosecond pulsed YAG laser irradiation

Nanosecond (∼100 ns) pulsed (10 Hz) Nd:YAG laser operating at the wavelength (λ) of 1064 nm with pulse energies of 0.16-1.24 mJ/cm² has irradiated 10Sm₂O₃·40BaO·50B₂O₃ glass. It is demonstrated for the first time that the structural modification resulting the large decease (∼3.5%) in the refractive index is induced by the irradiation of YAG laser with λ=1064 nm. The lines with refractive index changes are written in the deep inside of 100-1000 μm depths by scanning laser. The line width is 1-13 μm, depending on laser pulse energy and focused beam position. It is proposed that the samarium atom heat processing is a novel technique for inducing structural modification (refractive index change) in the deep interior of glass.     

Torsion sensing with a fiber ring laser incorporating a pair of rotary long-period fiber gratings

We experimentally demonstrate a fiber ring laser for high-resolution torsion measurement, where the laser cavity consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer formed with a pair of long-period fiber gratings written in a twisted single-mode fiber by a CO₂ laser. The emitting wavelength of the laser provides a measure of the rate of the torsion applied to the grating pair, while the direction of the wavelength shift indicates the sense of the applied torsion. The narrow linewidth and the large side-mode suppression ratio of the laser can provide a much more precise measurement of torsion, compared with passive fiber-optic torsion sensors. The torsion sensitivity achieved is 0.084 nm/(rad/m) in the torsion range ± 100 rad/m, which corresponds to a torsion resolution of 0.12 rad/m, assuming a wavelength resolution of 10 pm for a typical optical spectrum analyzer. The ultimate resolution of the sensor is limited by the linewidth of the laser and could be an order of magnitude higher.     

Highly accurate laser wavelength meter based on Doppler effect

We have built an accurate wavelength meter based on a Michelson interferometer characterized by a high stability velocity moving system. The unknown wavelength is determined from the Doppler frequency shifts of the output beams of the Michelson interferometer. The reference laser is a frequency stabilized helium-neon laser. A counting resolution of 2.6 × 10⁻⁹ for an integration time of 30 s has been obtained. The apparatus has been used to determine the wavelength of a second frequency stabilized helium-neon laser and the result has been compared to those given by two different methods: frequency beating in regards to the national reference and using a commercially available scanning-Michelson wavemeter. Taking into account the statistical errors, we achieved a relative accuracy on the unknown wavelength of 6.4 × 10⁻⁸ at 1σ.     

A novel optical subdivision method for dual-frequency interferometer

The theory of optical subdivision techniques of dual-frequency laser interferometers is stated. And a novel optical subdivision technique is proposed originally to enhance resolution of a commercial interferometer by adding some corner-cubes. Then the performance of the interferometer is tested. The interferometer resolution of 1.24 nm and the average error of below 2 nm are achieved by using the technique. The most novel of the optical subdivision technique is without λ/4 plates. It is less sensitive to environmental changes, it has prodigious potential to improve resolution farther and it can reduce polarization mixing error.     

基于飞秒光梳多路同步锁相的多波长干涉实时绝对测距及其非模糊度量程分析

飞秒光梳被广泛用于时间频率技术和精密光谱测量,由其时频特性所衍生的绝对测距技术以可溯源、大尺寸、高精度等优点有望成为未来长度计量的最重要手段.本文提出了一种基于飞秒光梳多路同步锁相的多波长干涉实时绝对测距方法,使多个连续波激光器通过光学锁相环技术同步锁定到飞秒光梳梳模上,通过多路同步相位测量和小数重合算法最终实现绝对距离测量.所提测量方法不仅能保留传统激光干涉测距的高分辨力和精度,而且可溯源至时间频率基准,对高精度长度测量、尤其是对物理复现“米”的定义具有重要计量意义.测距实验证明,四波长干涉测距的非模糊度量程达到44.6 mm,折射率波动导致非模糊度量程变化为纳米量级;多波长干涉测距的非模糊度量程也受制于空气折射率的测量误差,多波长干涉绝对测距的非模糊度量程在实验室环境下可达数米、甚至几十米,并通过2米线性位移实验证明了多波长绝对测距的大量程和线性测量性能.     

Efficient coupling and relaxed alignment tolerances in pigtailing of a laser diode using dual ball lenses

In this paper, we report an efficient coupling scheme with relaxed misalignment tolerances. The proposed coupling scheme consists of two ball lenses of same diameter (1 mm) and different refractive indices. The second ball lens which is facing the fiber tip has a higher refractive index (1.833), whereas the first one which faces the laser diode has a refractive index of 1.5. Employing Gaussian and ABCD ray tracing optics, the theoretically obtained coupling efficiency can reach a unity with relaxed working distance (separation of the coupling system from the fiber tip) in the range between 1 and 4 mm at some optimum positions of the coupling lenses with regard to each other and to the facet of the laser diode. It has been found that if the distance between the first ball lens and the laser diode (d₁) is fixed at 1.1 mm, which is twice its focal length, the coupling efficiency and the working distance as well as the misalignment tolerances are greatly affected by variation of the separation between the two ball lenses (s), and for this proposed coupling scheme the highest coupling efficiency and largest working distance are obtained when s is in the range of 0.3-0.35 mm. Above and below this range there is a significant reduction in the values of the above-mentioned parameters. Experimentally, the Nd:YAG laser welding system has been used for the alignment and welding of the coupling components in a butterfly configuration; the experimentally obtained coupling efficiency of the proposed coupling system was around 75% with relaxed working distance. From the effect of lateral and angular offsets on coupling efficiency, it is clearly noticed that the mode field of laser diode is transformed from elliptical into circular and hence effectively matched with that of the single-mode fiber.     

Investigation of refractive index modifications in CW CO2 laser written planar optical waveguides

This paper presents the measurement of the refractive index profile of buried channel waveguides fabricated by a CW CO₂ direct writing technique. A reflectance method is used to assess the refractive index distribution n(x,y) in these structures as it is a key parameter determining the propagation properties of guided wave devices. Beam propagation method (BMP) is used with experimentally determined cross-sectional data and refractive index profile to model the waveguides. The spatial resolution is 1.3 μm and, 5.10⁻⁴ for the refractive index.     

Femtosecond laser embedded grating micromachining of flexible PDMS plates

We report on the femtosecond laser micromachining of photo-induced embedded diffraction grating in flexible Poly (Dimethly Siloxane) (PDMS) plates using a high-intensity femtosecond (130 fs) Ti: sapphire laser (λ_p = 800 nm). The refractive index modifications with diameters ranging from 2 μm to 5 μm were photo-induced after the irradiation with peak intensities of more than 1 × 10¹¹ W/cm². The graded refractive index profile was fabricated to be a symmetric around from the center of the point at which femtosecond laser was focused. The maximum refractive index change (Δn) was estimated to be 2 × 10⁻³. By the X-Y-Z scanning of sample, the embedded diffraction grating in PDMS plate was fabricated successfully using a femtosecond laser.     

Zygo interferometer for measuring refractive index of liquids and its application for heavy water analysis

The Zygo interferometer for measuring refractive index of liquids such as heavy water is presented. The accuracy of measurement in the refractive index of liquids is found to be ±0.0002 in the Zygo interferometer. An application of Zygo interferometer for heavy water analysis is also presented. The interferometer is found to be useful for determining the percentage purity of heavy water with an accuracy of ±5% in the purity range of 0–100%.