Flexible and stretchable electrodes for dielectric elastomer actuators

Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are flexible lightweight actuators that can generate strains of over 100 %. They are used in applications ranging from haptic feedback (mm-sized devices), to cm-scale soft robots, to meter-long blimps. DEAs consist of an electrode-elastomer-electrode stack, placed on a frame. Applying a voltage between the electrodes electrostatically compresses the elastomer, which deforms in-plane or out-of plane depending on design. Since the electrodes are bonded to the elastomer, they must reliably sustain repeated very large deformations while remaining conductive, and without significantly adding to the stiffness of the soft elastomer. The electrodes are required for electrostatic actuation, but also enable resistive and capacitive sensing of the strain, leading to self-sensing actuators. This review compares the different technologies used to make compliant electrodes for DEAs in terms of: impact on DEA device performance (speed, efficiency, maximum strain), manufacturability, miniaturization, the integration of self-sensing and self-switching, and compatibility with low-voltage operation. While graphite and carbon black have been the most widely used technique in research environments, alternative methods are emerging which combine compliance, conduction at over 100 % strain with better conductivity and/or ease of patternability, including microfabrication-based approaches for compliant metal thin-films, metal-polymer nano-composites, nanoparticle implantation, and reel-to-reel production of μm-scale patterned thin films on elastomers. Such electrodes are key to miniaturization, low-voltage operation, and widespread commercialization of DEAs.     

Tunable guided-mode resonance filter based on dielectric elastomer actuators

A tunable guided-mode resonant (GMR) reflection filter based on dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) is designed. Simulating the characteristics of the filter with rigorous coupled wave analysis, it is shown that the resonant wavelength of the kind of GMR filter can be tuned from 1442.8 nm to 1644.6 nm by applying voltage on the dielectric elastomer actuators which changes the period of the grating layer of the GMR filter conveniently. Furthermore, there is an almost perfect linear relationship of resonant wavelength tuned and the period varied with negligible effect on the linewidth.     

Finite element modelling of dielectric elastomer minimum energy structures

This paper presents an experimentally validated finite element model suitable for simulating the quasi-static behaviour of Dielectric Elastomer Minimum Energy Structure(s) (DEMES). A DEMES consists of a pre-stretched Dielectric Elastomer Actuator (DEA) adhered to a thin, flexible frame. The tension in the stretched membrane causes the frame to curl up, and when a voltage is applied, the frame returns to its initial planar state thus forming a useful bending actuator. The simulation method presented here incorporates a novel strain energy function suitable for simulating general DEA actuator elements. When compared against blocked force data from our previous work, the new model provides a good fit with an order of magnitude reduction in computational time. Furthermore, the model accurately matched experimental data on the free displacement of DEMES formed with non-equibiaxially pre-stretched VHB4905 membranes driven by 2500 V. Non-equibiaxially pre-stretching the membranes allowed control of effective frame stiffness and bending moment, this was exploited by using the model to optimise stroke at 2500 V in a hypothetical case study. Dielectric constant measurements for non-equibiaxially stretched VHB4905 are also presented.     

Ion implanted dielectric elastomer circuits

Starfish and octopuses control their infinite degree-of-freedom arms with panache—capabilities typical of nature where the distribution of reflex-like intelligence throughout soft muscular networks greatly outperforms anything hard, heavy, and man-made. Dielectric elastomer actuators show great promise for soft artificial muscle networks. One way to make them smart is with piezo-resistive Dielectric Elastomer Switches (DES) that can be combined with artificial muscles to create arbitrary digital logic circuits. Unfortunately there are currently no reliable materials or fabrication process. Thus devices typically fail within a few thousand cycles. As a first step in the search for better materials we present a preliminary exploration of piezo-resistors made with filtered cathodic vacuum arc metal ion implantation. DES were formed on polydimethylsiloxane silicone membranes out of ion implanted gold nano-clusters. We propose that there are four distinct regimes (high dose, above percolation, on percolation, low dose) in which gold ion implanted piezo-resistors can operate and present experimental results on implanted piezo-resistors switching high voltages as well as a simple artificial muscle inverter. While gold ion implanted DES are limited by high hysteresis and low sensitivity, they already show promise for a range of applications including hysteretic oscillators and soft generators. With improvements to implanter process control the promise of artificial muscle circuitry for soft smart actuator networks could become a reality.     

Self-organized filaments in dielectric barrier glow discharges

The filamentation of a plasma created by a dielectric barrier discharge in conditions of low pd products (i.e., Townsend breakdown and not streamer breakdown) is investigated both experimentally and with a two-dimensional numerical discharge model. Complex stationary and dynamical domains and filaments are observed experimentally. Some of the properties of these systems are reproduced by the model     

Temperature dependence of the dielectric constant of acrylic dielectric elastomer

The dielectric constant is an essential electrical parameter to the achievable voltage-induced deformation of the dielectric elastomer. This paper primarily focuses on the temperature dependence of the dielectric constant (within the range of 173 K to 373 K) for the most widely used acrylic dielectric elastomer (VHB 4910). First the dielectric constant was investigated experimentally with the broadband dielectric spectrometer (BDS). Results showed that the dielectric constant first increased with temperature up to a peak value and then dropped to a relative small value. Then by analyzing the fitted curves, the Cole–Cole dispersion equation was found better to characterize the rising process before the peak values than the Debye dispersion equation, while the decrease process afterward can be well described by the simple Debye model. Finally, a mathematical model of dielectric constant of VHB 4910 was obtained from the fitted results which can be used to further probe the electromechanical stability of the dielectric elastomers.     

Failure modeling of folded dielectric elastomer actuator

When subjected to voltage,the dielectric elastomer membrane reduces its thickness and expands its area under the resulting compressive force.This characteristic enables the dielectric elastomer actuators of different structures to be designed and fabricated.By employing the thermodynamic theory and research method proposed by Suo et al.,an equilibrium equation of folded dielectric elastomer actuator with two generalized coordinates is established.The governing equations of failure models involving electromechanical instability,zero electric field,electrical breakdown,loss of tension,and rupture by stretch are also derived.The allowable areas of folded dielectric elastomer actuators are described.These results could provide a powerful guidance to the design and performance evaluation of the dielectric elastomer actuators.     

Self-organized structures in soft confined thin films

We present a mini-review of our recent work on spontaneous, self-organized creation of mesostructures in soft materials like thin films of polymeric liquids and elastic solids. These very small scale, highly confined systems are inherently unstable and thus self-organize into ordered structures which can be exploited for MEMS, sensors, opto-electronic devices and a host of other nanotechnology applications. In particular, mesomechanics requires incorporation of intermolecular interactions and surface tension forces, which are usually inconsequential in classical macroscale mechanics. We point to some experiments and quasi-continuum simulations of self-organized structures in thin soft films which are germane not only to nanotechnology, but also to a spectrum of classical issues such as adhesion/debonding, wetting, coatings, tribology and membranes.     

Photonic pseudogaps for periodic dielectric structures

We consider the problems of existence and structure of gaps (pseudogaps) in the spectra associated with Maxwell equations and equations that govern the propagation of acoustic waves in periodic two-component media. The dielectric constant is assumed to be real and positive, and the value of = _b on the background is supposed to be essentially larger than the value of = _a on the embedded component. We prove the existence of pseudogaps in the spectra of the relevant operators. In particular, we give an accurate treatment of the term pseudogap. We also show that if the contrast _b / _a approaches infinity, then the bands of the spectrum shrink to a discrete set which can be identified with the set of eigenvalues of a Neumann-type boundary value problem and thus can be effectively calculated.     

Dynamic performance of dielectric elastomers utilized as acoustic actuators

We report on the frequency dependent behavior of dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA). The introduced smart material actuators consist of 3M^???s elastomer VHB^?4905 (9469) and a compliant, sputtered copper electrode on each side. The presented experiments on these compounds contain the active tuning of their resonance frequency and their application as acoustic actuators. We are able to decrease the membranes?? eigenfrequency by?30% with an electrical offset potential. Alternatively, if an alternating signal is applied, sound pressure levels up to 130?dB in an enclosed volume of 28?ccm are achieved. In order to verify the results, a numerical simulation is introduced incorporating the two physical fields involved: electrical and mechanical.     

Vibration transport system for lunar and Martian regolith using dielectric elastomer actuator

An electrostatic transport system for lunar and Martian regolith particles was developed to realize In-Situ Resource Utilization for the successful long-term exploration of the Moon and Mars. The new system utilizes the dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA), which consists of a dielectric elastomer film sandwiched between elastic plate electrodes. When a high AC voltage is applied to the electrodes, the dielectric elastomer is driven by Maxwell stress and the resultant vibration is utilized to transport the regolith. The system has no mechanical drives and does not need complicated controls or high power consumption; thus, it is highly reliable for space application. In this study, the motions of regolith particles on a vibrating plate in the Earth and Moon environments were firstly investigated using a simple model calculation. Then, two types of vibration transport systems using DEA were developed based on the calculation results, and the basic characteristics of vibration transport for regolith were experimentally determined. The calculation result shows that the acceleration of the vibrating plate is the key factor for the success of vibration transport, and the lunar regolith simulant FJS-1 could be experimentally transported at a feed rate of approximately 1.95 g/s on the Earth using one of the developed system types when the plate acceleration exceeded 14.7 m/s². It is expected that the transport performance of the system will be improved in the Moon environment owing to the absence of air drag and the small gravitational force.     

Uncertainty propagation analysis of dielectric elastomer with interval parameters

正In the recent years,dielectric elastomers(DEs) have become the most popular actuators owing to their special properties such as large deformation,light weight,flexibility,and chemical and biological compatibility in the field of soft material[1].A DE consists of a polymer film sandwiched between two compliant electrodes.When a voltage is applied     

Jet noise control using the dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators

We study experimentally how plasma actuators operating on the basis of surface barrier high-frequency discharge affect jet noise characteristics. The results of investigations of air jets (100?C200 m/s) have demonstrated that the studied plasma actuators have control authority over the noise characteristics of these jets. An actuator??s effect on the jet in the applied configuration is related to acoustic discharge excitation and to a large extent is similar to the well-known Vlasov-Ginevsky effect. It has been shown that jet excitation in the case of St ?? 0.5 using the barrier-discharge plasma actuator leads to broadband amplification of jet sound radiation. The jet excitation in the case of St > 2 leads to broadband noise reduction if the action is sufficiently intensive.     

Forebody asymmetric vortex control with extended dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuators

Plasma control of forebody asymmetric vortices is mostly achieved by means of dielectric barrier discharge(DBD)plasma actuators. However, DBD actuators suffer from some disadvantages such as a weak induced body force, a singledirection induced jet, and an unclear control mechanism. We carry out wind tunnel experiments involving the forebody vortex control of a slender body at high angles of attack using an innovative extended DBD actuator, which has a stronger capacity to induce an electric wind than a DBD actuator. Through synchronous measurements of the pressure distribution and particle image velocimetry(PIV), the spatiotemporal evolution of the dynamic interactions between plasma-actuationinduced vortices and forebody asymmetric vortices is analyzed. The influence of plasma discharge on the boundary layer separation around a slender body and the spatial topological structures of asymmetric vortices are further surveyed, as the optimized actuation parameters. Extended DBD actuators are found to be more capable of controlling asymmetric vortices than DBD actuators, and a linear proportionality of the sectional lateral force versus the duty ratio is achieved.There exists an optimal normalized reduced frequency( f+= 2π fpd/U∞= 2.39) for asymmetric vortex control under the present experimental conditions. The research results can provide technical guidance for the control and reuse of forebody asymmetric vortices.     

微穿孔介电弹性体薄膜的吸声性能试验分析*

针对普通薄膜型降噪结构的吸声性能较差和吸声带宽较窄的问题,本文设计了一种微穿孔的介电弹性体薄膜吸声结构。该结构由穿孔的介电弹性体薄膜与背腔组合而成,目的是拓宽介电弹性体薄膜低频率段的吸声带宽。针对微穿孔的介电弹性体薄膜吸声结构,从试验角度分析穿孔薄膜初始厚度、穿孔孔径及穿孔间距对结构吸声性能的影响。分析结果可知：通过适当增加薄膜的初始厚度,薄膜的整体吸声性能得到有效提升,最大可将319Hz吸声频带的吸声系数从0.2提升至0.7;减小薄膜的穿孔孔径能够有效拓宽穿孔薄膜的吸声频带,可使吸声系数0.4以上的吸声带宽由304Hz拓宽至432Hz;适当控制穿孔间距能够达到更好的吸声效果。     

Semicylindrical acoustic transducer from a dielectric elastomer film with compliant electrodes

A semicylindrical acoustic transducer was constructed using a dielectric elastomer film with compliant electrodes that is an electroactive polymer composed of a polyurethane elastomer base and polyethylene dioxythiophene/polystyrene sulfonate electrodes. The use of this dielectric elastomer is advantageous because polyurethane is a common material that keeps its shape without any rigid frame. Because the dielectric elastomer films are essentially incompressible, electric-field-induced thickness changes are usually translated into much larger changes of the film area and side length. Here it is proposed that this change in side length can be utilized for sound generation when the film is bent into a semicylindrical shape. Accordingly, a semicylindrical acoustic transducer was fabricated using a film of thickness of 300 μm and its acoustic characteristics were investigated. The transducer can be operated at low applied voltages by reducing the film thickness, as long as the film is thick enough to generate sufficient force to overcome sound radiation impedance. The second harmonic distortion of the transducer was also investigated as a function of the ratio of the direct current bias voltage to the alternating current audio signal amplitude.     

An experimental investigation of electromechanical response in a dielectric acrylic elastomer

Electric-field-induced transverse-strain response was investigated in a dielectric acrylic elastomer at 1 Hz. The strain was observed to be proportional to square of the electric field strength within the measurement range (0 to 2 MV/m). Elastic compliance of the elastomer was measured as a function of frequency and was found to exhibit strong frequency dependence between 1 and 10 Hz. It was indicated that the field-induced-strain response in the acrylic elastomer originates primarily from the Maxwell stress effect. The experimental data obtained at low field and frequency were used to estimate the electromechanical behavior at higher field and frequency. PACS 77.65.-j; 77.84.Jd; 81.05.Lg