Hydrogen Bonding versus Halogen Bonding: Spectroscopic Investigation of Gas-Phase Complexes Involving Bromide and Chloromethanes

Hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding are important non-covalent interactions that are known to occur in large molecular systems, such as in proteins and crystal structures. Although these interactions are important on a large scale, studying hydrogen and halogen bonding in small, gas-phase chemical species allows for the binding strengths to be determined and compared at a fundamental level. In this study, anion photoelectron spectra are presented for the gas-phase complexes involving bromide and the four chloromethanes, CH₃Cl, CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, and CCl₄. The stabilisation energy and electron binding energy associated with each complex are determined experimentally, and the spectra are rationalised by high-level CCSD(T) calculations to determine the non-covalent interactions binding the complexes. These calculations involve nucleophilic bromide and electrophilic bromine interactions with chloromethanes, where the binding motifs, dissociation energies and vertical detachment energies are compared in terms of hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding.     

Halogen Bonding versus Hydrogen Bonding: A Molecular Orbital Perspective

We have carried out extensive computational analyses of the structure and bonding mechanism in trihalides DX⋅⋅⋅A⁻ and the analogous hydrogen-bonded complexes DH⋅⋅⋅A⁻ (D, X, A=F, Cl, Br, I) using relativistic density functional theory (DFT) at zeroth-order regular approximation ZORA-BP86/TZ2P. One purpose was to obtain a set of consistent data from which reliable trends in structure and stability can be inferred over a large range of systems. The main objective was to achieve a detailed understanding of the nature of halogen bonds, how they resemble, and also how they differ from, the better understood hydrogen bonds. Thus, we present an accurate physical model of the halogen bond based on quantitative Kohn–Sham molecular orbital (MO) theory, energy decomposition analyses (EDA) and Voronoi deformation density (VDD) analyses of the charge distribution. It appears that the halogen bond in DX⋅⋅⋅A⁻ arises not only from classical electrostatic attraction but also receives substantial stabilization from HOMO–LUMO interactions between the lone pair of A⁻ and the σ* orbital of D–X.     

Clustering-Triggered Efficient Room-Temperature Phosphorescence from Nonconventional Luminophores

Pure organic room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) and luminescence from nonconventional luminophores have gained increasing attention. However, it remains challenging to achieve efficient RTP from unorthodox luminophores, on account of the unsophisticated understanding of the emission mechanism. Herein, we propose a strategy to realize efficient RTP in nonconventional luminophores through incorporation of lone pairs together with clustering and effective electronic interactions. The former promotes spin-orbit coupling and boosts the consequent intersystem crossing, whereas the latter narrows energy gaps and stabilizes the triplets, thus synergistically affording remarkable RTP. Experimental and theoretical results of urea and its derivatives verify the design rationale. Remarkably, RTP from thiourea solids with unprecedentedly high efficiency of up to 24.5 % is obtained. Further control experiments testify the crucial role of through-space delocalization on the emission. These results will spur the future fabrication of nonconventional phosphors and advance the understanding of the underlying emission mechanism.     

Halogen Bonding: An Interim Discussion

Halogen bonding is a noncovalent interaction that is receiving rapidly increasing attention because of its significance in biological systems and its importance in the design of new materials in a variety of areas, for example, electronics, nonlinear optical activity, and pharmaceuticals. The interactions can be understood in terms of electrostatics/polarization and dispersion; they involve a region of positive electrostatic potential on a covalently bonded halogen and a negative site, such as the lone pair of a Lewis base. The positive potential, labeled a σ hole, is on the extension of the covalent bond to the halogen, which accounts for the characteristic near‐linearity of halogen bonding. In many instances, the lateral sides of the halogen have negative electrostatic potentials, allowing it to also interact favorably with positive sites. In this discussion, after looking at some of the experimental observations of halogen bonding, we address the origins of σ holes, the factors that govern the magnitudes of their electrostatic potentials, and the properties of the resulting complexes with negative sites. The relationship of halogen and hydrogen bonding is examined. We also point out that σ‐hole interactions are not limited to halogens, but can also involve covalently bonded atoms of Groups IV–VI. Examples of applications in biological/medicinal chemistry and in crystal engineering are mentioned, taking note that halogen bonding can be “tuned” to fit various requirements, that is, strength of interaction, steric factors, and so forth.     

Halogen Bonding to Amplify Luminescence: A Case Study Using a Platinum Cyclometalated Complex

The cocrystallization of a weakly luminescent platinum complex [Pt(btpy)(PPh₃)Cl] ( 1 ) (Hbtpy=2‐(2benzothienyl)pyridine; emission quantum yield Φ_em=0.03) with fluorinated bromo‐ and iodoarenes C₆F_6‐nX_n (X=Br, I; n=1, 2) results in the formation of efficient halogen‐bonding (XB) interactions Pt? Cl???X? R. An up to 22‐fold enhancement (Φ_em=0.65) in the luminescence intensity of the cocrystallized compound is detected, without a substantial change of the emission energy. Based on crystallographic, photophysical, and theoretical investigations, the contribution of the XB donors C₆F_6‐nX_n to the amplification of luminescence intensity is attributed to the enhancement of spin–orbit coupling through the heavy‐atom effect, and simultaneously to the suppression of the nonradiative relaxation pathways by increasing the rigidity of the chromophore center.     

Bifunctional Iodoazolium Salts: Searching for Cooperation Between Halogen Bonding and Hydrogen Bonding

Non-covalent interactions play an important role in all sub-fields of chemistry, including catalysis, where interactions of different natures can work together to improve reactivitiy and selectivity. Several families of molecules that incorporate both hydrogen bond (HB) and halogen bonding (XB) donors have already been studied. However, there is a lack of data on how grafting HB donors to iodoazolium salts could impact their association and reactivity properties. Herein, we disclose the synthesis of a library of iodoazolium salts bearing varied HB donors, along with a study of their physico-chemical properties using different techniques (X-ray diffraction, ³¹P NMR, ITC) and their behavior in catalysis. Even though no clear-cut evidence of cooperation between XB and HB could be obtained through physico-chemical evaluations, a iodoazolium salt bearing a urea function displayed better conversion and product selectivity in a Ritter reaction than all other activators lacking one or the other function.     

Room-Temperature Phosphorescence Invoked Through Norbornyl-Driven Intermolecular Interaction Intensification with Anomalous Reversible Solid-State Photochromism

Herein, norbornyl (NB), a bulky annular nonconjugated spacer, is melded into π systems to construct two groups of ladder-type room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) luminogens. The effect of the NB on π-π interactions, packing modes and RTP performance is explored systematically. The experimental and computational results demonstrate the versatility of NB in reducing π-π distances and synergistically intensifying the intermolecular interactions, which not only induces intersystem crossing from S₁ to T_n but also diminishes the nonradiative decay of triplet excitons. Impressively, 1800-fold phosphorescence lifetime enhancement is achieved in comparison with the reference compounds without NB. The molecular packing and RTP performance can be further modulated by the length of the backbones and terminal end-groups. It is quite peculiar that NB-annulated phthalic acid exhibits reversible photochromism in the solid state, likely due to the formation of persistent radical pairs. Our study paves an ingenious avenue towards enhancing intermolecular interactions and provides significant implications for a better comprehensive understanding of the origin of their RTP and the inherent photophysical mechanism.     

The Effects of Salts on the Room-Temperature Fluorescence and Room-Temperature Phosphorescence of Tetrols on Filter Paper and Filter Paper with Silicone

Abstract

Several salts were investigated to enhance the room-temperature solid-matrix phosphorescence of the four stereoisomeric tetrols on filter paper. Thallium acetate was found to enhance the phosphorescence to the greatest extent, but it was necessary to prepare the thallium acetate in an acetic acid solution to achieve the maximum phosphorescence from the solid matrix. Also, thallium acetate essentially quenched the solid-matrix fluorescence of the tetrols. Without thallium acetate adsorbed on filter paper, strong room-temperature fluorescence signals were observed from the tetrols adsorbed on filter paper. With a new solid matrix, filter paper which contained silicone, no heavy-atom was needed to obtain strong phosphorescence from the adsorbed tetrols. In fact, the room-temperature fluorescence from the tetrols adsorbed on this type of filter paper was very strong. The room-temperature fluorescence gave a limit of detection in the sub-picogram range for one of the tetrols with the silicone treated filter paper.     

Rational Modification of the Hierarchy of Intermolecular Interactions in Molecular Crystal Structures by Using Tunable Halogen Bonds

A family of 16 isomolecular salts (3‐XpyH)₂[MX′₄] (3‐XpyH=3‐halopyridinium; M=Co, Zn; X=(F), Cl, Br, (I); X′=Cl, Br, I) each containing rigid organic cations and tetrahedral halometallate anions has been prepared and characterized by X‐ray single crystal and/or powder diffraction. Their crystal structures reflect the competition and cooperation between non‐covalent interactions: N? H???X′? M hydrogen bonds, C? X???X′? M halogen bonds and π–π stacking. The latter are essentially unchanged in strength across the series, but both halogen bonds and hydrogen bonds are modified in strength upon changing the halogens involved. Changing the organic halogen (X) from F to I strengthens the C? X???X′? M halogen bonds, whereas an analogous change of the inorganic halogen (X′) weakens both halogen bonds and N? H???X′? M hydrogen bonds. By so tuning the strength of the putative halogen bonds from repulsive to weak to moderately strong attractive interactions, the hierarchy of the interactions has been modified rationally leading to systematic changes in crystal packing. Three classes of crystal structure are obtained. In type A (C? F???X′? M) halogen bonds are absent. The structure is directed by N? H???X′? M hydrogen bonds and π‐stacking interactions. In type B structures, involving small organic halogens (X) and large inorganic halogens (X′), long (weak) C? X???X′? M interactions are observed with type I halogen–halogen interaction geometries (C? X???X′ ≈ X???X′? M ≈155°), but hydrogen bonds still dominate. Thus, minor but quite significant perturbations from the type A structure arise. In type C, involving larger organic halogens (X) and smaller inorganic halogens (X′), stronger halogen bonds are formed with a type II halogen–halogen interaction geometry (C? X???X′ ≈180°; X???X′? M ≈110°) that is electrostatically attractive. The halogen bonds play a major role alongside hydrogen bonds in directing the type C structures, which as a result are quite different from type A and B.     

Halogen Bonding in Organic Synthesis and Organocatalysis

Halogen bonding is a noncovalent interaction similar to hydrogen bonding, which is based on electrophilic halogen substituents. Hydrogen‐bonding‐based organocatalysis is a well‐established strategy which has found numerous applications in recent years. In light of this, halogen bonding has recently been introduced as a key interaction for the design of activators or organocatalysts that is complementary to hydrogen bonding. This Concept features a discussion on the history and electronic origin of halogen bonding, summarizes all relevant examples of its application in organocatalysis, and provides an overview on the use of cationic or polyfluorinated halogen‐bond donors in halide abstraction reactions or in the activation of neutral organic substrates.     

Tailoring Intermolecular Interactions for Efficient Room‐Temperature Phosphorescence from Purely Organic Materials in Amorphous Polymer Matrices

Herein we report a rational design strategy for tailoring intermolecular interactions to enhance room‐temperature phosphorescence from purely organic materials in amorphous matrices at ambient conditions. The built‐in strong halogen and hydrogen bonding between the newly developed phosphor G1 and the poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) matrix efficiently suppresses vibrational dissipation and thus enables bright room‐temperature phosphorescence (RTP) with quantum yields reaching 24 %. Furthermore, we found that modulation of the strength of halogen and hydrogen bonding in the G1–PVA system by water molecules produced unique reversible phosphorescence‐to‐fluorescence switching behavior. This unique system can be utilized as a ratiometric water sensor.     

Thiazole Boron Difluoride Dyes with Large Stokes Shift,Solid State Emission and Room-Temperature Phosphorescence

The small Stokes shift and weak emission in the solid state are two main shortcomings associated with the boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) family of dyes. This study presents the design, synthesis and luminescent properties of boron difluoro complexes of 2-aryl-5-alkylamino-4-alkylaminocarbonylthiazoles. These dyes display Stokes shifts (Δλ, 77–101 nm) with quantum yields (ϕ_FL) up to 64.9 and 34.7 % in toluene solution and in solid state, respectively. Some of these compounds exhibit dual fluorescence and room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) emission properties with modulable phosphorescence quantum yields (ϕ_PL) and lifetime (τ_p up to 251 μs). The presence of intramolecular H-bonds and negligible π-π stacking revealed by X-ray crystal structure might account for the observed large Stokes shift and significant solid-state emission of these fluorophores, while the enhanced spin-orbit coupling (SOC) of iodine and the self-assembly driven by halogen bonding, π-π and C−H^…π interactions could be responsible for the observed RTP of iodine containing phosphors.     

Iodine(III) Derivatives as Halogen Bonding Organocatalysts

Hypervalent iodine(III) derivatives are known as versatile reagents in organic synthesis, but there is only one previous report on their use as Lewis acidic organocatalysts. Herein, we present first strong indications for the crucial role of halogen bonding in this kind of catalyses. To this end, the solvolysis of benzhydryl chloride and the Diels–Alder reaction of cyclopentadiene with methyl vinyl ketone served as benchmark reactions for halide abstraction and the activation of neutral compounds. Iodolium compounds (cyclic diaryl iodonium species) were used as activators or catalysts, and we were able to markedly reduce or completely switch off their activity by sterically blocking one or two of their electrophilic axes. Compared with previously established bidentate cationic halogen bond donors, the monodentate organoiodine derivatives used herein are at least similarly active (in the Diels–Alder reaction) or even decidedly more active (in benzhydryl chloride solvolysis).     

Stereodynamics in the Collisional Autoionization of Water,Ammonia, and Hydrogen Sulfide with Metastable Rare Gas Atoms: Competition Between Intermolecular Halogen and Hydrogen Bonds

Recent experiments on the title subject, performed with a high‐resolution crossed‐beam apparatus, have provided the total ionization cross sections as a function of the collision energy between noble gas atoms, electronically excited in their metastable states (Ng*), and H₂O, H₂S, and NH₃ reagents, as well as the emitted electron energy spectra. This paper presents a rationalization of all the experimental findings in a unifying picture to cast light on the basic chemical properties of Ng* under conditions of great relevance both from a fundamental and from an applied point of view. The importance of this investigation is that it isolates the selective role of the intermolecular halogen and hydrogen bonds, to assess their anisotropic effects on the stereodynamics of the promoted ionization reactions, and to model energy transfer and reactivity in systems of applied interest, such as planetary atmospheres, plasmas, lasers, and flames.     

Molecular Engineering for Metal-Free Amorphous Materials with Room-Temperature Phosphorescence

Materials displaying room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) have been attracting wide attention in recent years due to their distinctive characteristics including long emissive lifetime and large Stokes shift, and their various applications. Most synthesized RTP materials are metal complexes that display enhanced intersystem crossing and crystallization is a common way to restrict nonradiative transition. Amorphous metal-free RTP materials, which do not rely on expensive and toxic metals and can be prepared in a straightforward fashion, have become an important branch of the field. This Minireview summarizes recent progress in amorphous RTP materials according to the approaches used to immobilize phosphors: host–guest interactions, molecule doping, copolymers, and small-molecule self-assembly. Some existing challenges and insightful perspectives are given at the end of the Minireview, which should benefit the future design and development of amorphous metal-free RTP materials.     

Exploring Orthogonality between Halogen and Hydrogen Bonding Involving Benzene

The concept of orthogonality between halogen and hydrogen bonding, brought out by Ho and coworkers some years ago, has become a widely accepted idea within the chemists’ community. While the original work was based on a common carbonyl oxygen as acceptor for both interactions, we explore here, by means of M06-2X, M11, ωB97X, and ωB97XD/aug-cc-PVTZ DFT calculations, the interdependence of halogen and hydrogen bonding with a shared π-electron system of benzene. The donor groups (specifically NCBr and H₂O) were placed on either or the same side of the ring, according to a double T-shaped or a perpendicular geometry, respectively. The results demonstrate that the two interactions with benzene are not strictly independent on each other, therefore outlining that the orthogonality between halogen and hydrogen bonding, intended as energetical independence between the two interactions, should be carefully evaluated according to the specific acceptor group.     

Co-existing Intermolecular Halogen Bonding and Hydrogen Bonding in the Compound Trans-5,10-bis（1-bromodifluoro-acetyl-1-ethoxycarbonyl-methylidene）thianthrene

Trans-5,10-bis(1-bromodifluoroacetyl-l-ethoxycarbonyl-methylidene)thianthrene (1b) was prepared from the reaction of BrCF2COC(N2)CO2Et with thianthrene. X-ray single crystal diffraction analysis showed that the intermolecular halogen bonding and hydrogen bonding coexisted in this compound. The bromine atom acted as an electron acceptor in the halogen bond and an electron donor in the hydrogen bond. It is the first example that the bromine atom acted as such a dual role in the hydrogen and halogen bond.