Comparative Studies on Electrocatalytic Activities of Chemically Reduced Graphene Oxide and Electrochemically Reduced Graphene Oxide Noncovalently Functionalized with Poly(methylene blue)

This study compares the electrocatalytic activities of chemically reduced graphene oxide (crGO) and electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (erGO), which are both noncovalently functionalized with a polyaromatic dye, poly(methylene blue) (polyMB), toward the oxidation of β‐nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). PolyMB‐crGO and polyMB‐erGO composites were obtained via electropolymerization of methylene blue on crGO and GO modified glassy carbon (GC) electrodes, respectively. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) results indicate that these two types of integrated electrodes reveal different electrocatalytic activities. PolyMB‐crGO integrated electrode possesses lower catalytic oxidation potential, suggesting higher catalytic activity. The present study is helpful for the understanding and screening of graphene‐based advanced carbon nanomaterials for potential electrochemical applications.     

电化学还原氧化石墨烯用于四环素电催化检测

四环素(TTC)因其广泛的抗菌性和低生产成本等特点而成为应用最广泛的兽医药物. TTC的大量使用不可避免地导致其进入地表水、地下水和污水处理厂.迄今,已有许多方法用于TTC检测,包括免疫测定法、微生物检测法和化学-物理法等.然而,这些方法费用高,耗时长或需要复杂的样品预处理过程,不适合现场测量或常规分析.电化学分析法具有操作简单、成本低廉、选择性和灵敏度较高、易实现在线检测等特点,在检测领域具有重要优势.石墨烯在电化学传感器领域表现出优越的应用性能,但有关石墨烯材料应用于电分析和电催化方面的报道仍然有限.石墨烯的前驱体氧化石墨烯(GO)片层底面上具有各种类型的含氧官能团和层状边缘,导致其绝缘并具有很多缺陷,使GO包含了sp2和sp3杂化碳原子,为GO提供了独特的具有化学功能的异构电子结构.通过对GO进行还原,可以生成新的sp2域或者改变含氧官能团的数量和类型,从而为GO提供更多的特殊性质.研究表明,电化学还原是一种绿色快速的还原方法,可以控制GO的还原程度和还原过程.本文利用电化学还原法来调整GO表面的官能团和缺陷度,利用在–0.8 V还原电位下得到的电化学还原氧化石墨烯(ERGO-0.8V)修饰玻碳电极(GC)为工作电极(GC/ERGO-0.8V),采用循环伏安法对溶解在pH=3的缓冲溶液中的TTC进行电化学检测,发现ERGO-0.8V对TTC具有电催化性能.利用红外光谱(FT-IR)、X射线光电子能谱(XPS)和拉曼光谱对ERGO-0.8V, ERGO-1.2V, GO及化学还原得到的石墨烯(CRGO)表面官能团和缺陷程度进行了表征,考察了TTC在ERGO-0.8V/GC上的电化学行为,对其电催化还原机理进行了推测.结果表明,与GO, ERGO-1.2V及CRGO修饰电极相比, GC/ERGO-0.8V修饰电极的催化还原峰在0–0.5 V,对TTC表现出独特的电催化性能, GC/ERGO-0.8V电极对浓度为0.1–120 mg/L的TTC溶液具有良好的检测性能,在不同浓度范围内其氧化峰峰电流与峰电位的线性关系不同. FT-IR和XPS结果显示,在–0.8 V还原电位下得到的ERGO-0.8V,其官能团类型和数量发生变化,但仍存在大量官能团,主要是羧基、羟基和环氧基.同时,拉曼表征显示ERGO-0.8V的缺陷密度增大,同时新生成的sp2域减小而使得ERGO的sp2域减小.对比GO等其他材料的表征结果推测,官能团变化是影响ERGO独特电催化性质的主要因素,除此之外还有材料的缺陷度和sp2域.推测GC/ERGO-0.8V修饰电极对TTC可能的催化机理为： TTC在GC/ERGO电极上的还原与氢醌和醌之间的转换有关;而对于ERGO,则可能对应于羧基和羟基之间的转化.然而,同样具有羧基和羟基的ERGO-1.2V则对TTC没有产生电催化作用.其原因可能是在–0.8到–1.2 V还原电位下,形成的羧基位于石墨烯片层内部,而片层内的电子传递较慢.     

An electrochemical biosensor for direct detection of DNA using polystyrene-g-soya oil-g-imidazole graft copolymer

A label-free electrochemical DNA biosensor was developed through the attachment of polystyrene-g-soya oil-g-imidazole graft copolymer (PS-PSyIm) onto modified graphene oxide (GO) electrodeposited on glassy carbon electrode (GC). GC/GO electrode was initially functionalised via electrochemical reduction of 4-nitrobenzene diazonium salt, followed by the electrochemical reduction of NO₂ to NH₂. Subsequent to the electrochemical deposition of gold nanoparticles on modified surface, the attachment of the PS-PSyIm graft copolymer on the resulting electrode was achieved. The interaction of PS-PSyIm with DNA at the bare glassy carbon electrode was studied by cyclic voltammetry technique, and it was found that interaction predominantly takes place through intercalation mode. The selectivity of developed DNA biosensor was also explored by DPV on the basis of considering hybridisation event with non-complementary, one-base mismatched DNA and complementary target DNA sequence. Large decrease in the peak current was found upon the addition of complementary target DNA. The sensitivity of the developed DNA biosensor was also investigated, and detection limit was found to be 1.20 nmol L^?1.     

Fabrication of an Electrochemical L‐Cysteine Sensor Based on Graphene Nanosheets Decorated Manganese Oxide Nanocomposite Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

The graphene nanosheets/manganese oxide nanoparticles modified glassy carbon electrode (GC/GNSs/MnOx) was simply prepared by casting a thin film of GNSs on the GC electrode surface, followed by performing electrodeposition of MnOx at applied constant potential. The GC/GNSs/MnOx modified electrode shows high catalytic activity toward oxidation of L ‐cysteine. Hydrodynamic amperometry determination of L ‐cysteine gave linear responses over a concentration range up to 120 µM with a detection limit of 75 nM and sensitivity of 27 nA µM^?1. The GC/GNSs/MnOx electrode appears to be a highly efficient platform for the development of sensitive, stable and reproducible L ‐cysteine electrochemical sensors.     

Fabrication, Characterization and Electrocatalysis of an Ordered Carbon Nanotube Electrode

A method for fabrication of ordered carbon nanotube (CNT) film,which was template-synthesized within the highly ordered pores of a commercially available alumina template membrane,modified glassy carbon(CNT/GC) electrode was established.The CNT/GC electrode showed excellent electrocatalytic activity toward dopamine electrochemical reaction without introducing any electrochemically active group into CNT film or activating any electrochemically active group into CNT film or activating the electrode electrochemically.DA undergoes ideal reversible electrochemical reaction on CNT/GC electrode at low scan rate(≤20mV/s) with an excellent reproducibility and stability.The CNT/GC electrode might be used in biosensors because the highly ordered CNT may present a steric effect on more efficient redox reactions of biomolecules.     

Electrografting of 4‐tert‐Butylcatechol on GC Electrode. Selective Electrochemical Determination of Homocysteine

A new sensor based on the grafting of 4‐tert‐butylcatechol on the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GC) was developed for the catalytic oxidation of homocysteine ( Hcy ). The GC‐modified electrode exhibited a reversible redox response at neutral pH. Under the optimum conditions cyclic voltammetric results indicated the excellent electrocatalytic activity of modified electrode toward the oxidation of Hcy at reduced over‐potential about 350 mV. A linear dynamic range of 0.01–3.0 mM and a detection limit of 1.0 µM were obtained for Hcy . The modified electrode was used as an electrochemical sensor for selective determination of Hcy in human blood.     

Determination of Explosives Using Electrochemically Reduced Graphene

A graphene‐based electrochemical sensing platform for sensitive determination of explosive nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) was constructed by means of electrochemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The electrochemically reduced graphene (ER‐GO) adhered strongly onto the GCE surface with a wrinkled morphology that showed a large active surface area. 2,4‐Dinitrotoluene (2,4‐DNT), as a model analyte, was detected by using stripping voltammetry, which gave a low detection limit of 42 nmol L⁻¹ (signal‐to‐noise ratio=3) and a wide linear range from 5.49×10⁻⁷ to 1.1×10⁻⁵ M . Further characterizations by electrochemistry, IR, and Raman spectra confirmed that the greatly improved electrochemical reduction signal of DNT on the ER‐GO‐modified GC electrode could be ascribed to the excellent electrocatalytic activity and high surface‐area‐to‐volume ratio of graphene, and the strong π–π stacking interactions between 2,4‐DNT and the graphene surface. Other explosive nitroaromatic compounds including 1,3‐dinitrobenzene (1,3‐DNB), 2,4,6‐trinitrotoluene (TNT), and 1,3,5‐trinitrobenzene (TNB) could also be detected on the ER‐GO‐modified GC electrode at the nM level. Experimental results showed that electrochemical reduction of GO on the GC electrode was a fast, simple, and controllable method for the construction of a graphene‐modified electrode for sensing NACs and other sensing applications.     

Fast and Simple Preparation of a Sensor Based on Electrochemically Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) for the Determination of Zopiclone in Pharmaceutical Dosage by Square Wave Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry (SWAdSV)

The interactions of zopiclone with electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (rGO) modified electrode were examined. A comparison of GC/rGO and glassy carbon electrode (GC) by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) shows that the modified surface is much less conductive than GC. The role of rGO is to act as a site of specific adsorption of the analyte. Molecular dynamics showed that the monoanionic form of zopiclone presents more interactions with defects of rGO. The analytical methodology allowed obtaining a linearity of 10–130 μg L⁻¹, with a limit of detection of 2.14 μg L⁻¹ using SWAdSV at pH 10.0.     

Electrochemical Sensing of Chemical Warfare Agent Based on Hybrid Material Silver‐aminosilane Graphene Oxide

The threat from chemical warfare agents (CWAs) imparts an alarming call for the global community not limited to human being but also extends as unprecedented environmental threat, hence, timely detection and degradation in the event of CWAs attack is very crucial. Herein, we describe a hybrid material of 3‐aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) modified graphene oxide (GO) on glassy carbon (GC) electrode along with electrodeposited silver nanodendrimers (AgNDs) for the electrochemical detection and degradation of CWA sulphur mustard (HD). The AgNDs/APTES‐GO hybrid material was characterized by SEM, EDX, BET, TGA, Raman, UV‐Vis, XPS and XRD techniques. The AgNDs/APTES‐GO modified GC electrode was also characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Electrochemical studies indicated presence of electrocatalysis owing to the synergistic effect of AgNDs and GO for sensing CWA HD via reductive dehalogenation. The AgNDs/APTES‐GO modified GC electrode exhibited linearity for CWA HD from 5.3 μM to 42.4 μM. Constant potential electrolysis was performed with modified electrode and degradation products were analysed using GC‐MS, highlighting the great potential of graphene based hybrid material. This new strategy provides an opportunity for the development of “detect and destroy” system for the CWAs and other environmental toxic pollutant, which could help in mitigation of on‐ site events for first responders.     

Bio-electrocatalysis of NADH and ethanol based on graphene sheets modified electrodes

Characterization and application of graphene sheets modified glassy carbon electrodes (graphene/GC) have been presented for the electrochemical bio-sensing. A probe molecule, potassium ferricyanide is employed to study the electrochemical response at the graphene/GC electrode, which shows better electron transfer than graphite modified (graphite/GC) and bare glassy carbon (GC) electrodes. Based on the highly enhanced electrochemical activity of NADH, alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) is immobilized on the graphene modified electrode and displays a more desirable analytical performance in the detection of ethanol, compared with graphite/GC or GC based bio-electrodes. It also exhibits good performance of ethanol detection in the real samples. From the results of electrochemical investigation, graphene sheets with a favorable electrochemical activity could be an advanced carbon electrode materials for the design of electrochemical sensors and biosensors.     

Electrochemical determination of nitrite using a gold nanoparticles-modified glassy carbon electrode prepared by the seed-mediated growth technique.

Seed-mediated growth of gold nanoparticles on glassy carbon (GC) surfaces was developed. The field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and electrochemical characterization confirmed the effective attachment of gold nanoparticles on GC surface with such a wet-chemical method. The as-prepared gold nanoparticles attached glassy carbon electrode (Au/GCE) presented excellent catalytic ability toward the oxidation of nitrite. Compared with bare GCE and planar gold electrode, the Au/GCE obviously decreased the overpotential of nitrite oxidation and improved the peak current. The catalytic current was found to be linearly proportional to the nitrite concentration in the range of 1 x 10(-5) - 5 x 10(-3) M, with a detection limit of 2.4 x 10(-6) M. The Au/GCE was successfully applied to the electrochemical determination of nitrite in a real wastewater sample, showing excellent stability and anti-interference ability.     

Carbon‐Supported Pt Particles as a Catalyst for Electrooxidation of Methanol and Cyclic Voltammetry Studies Under Acidic Conditions

Electrooxidation of methanol on glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified by optimum carbon supported Pt electrocatalyst (Pt‐C/GC) in acid media is investigated. The catalyst is prepared by ultrasonicating Pt/C powders in aqueous media. The activity of prepared Pt‐C/GC electrode is studied in potential range of 0–1000 mV (versus SCE) by cyclic voltammetry. The results showed that the Pt/C dispersed layer at the surface of glassy carbon electrode, behaves as an electrocatalyst for the oxidation of methanol in acid medium by optimum loading of Pt (0.2 mg cm^?2). The electrochemical properties of prepared electrode are studied under various conditions. However the effect of various parameters in the catalytic enhancement of Pt/C, such as platinum loading, sulfuric acid concentration, different scan rates, different final potentials, and medium temperature are considered and examined.     

Electrocatalytic determination of ascorbic acid on a glassy carbon electrode chemically modified with cobalt pentacyanonitrosylferrate.

An electrochemically prepared thin film of cobalt pentacyanonitrosylferrate (GC/CoPCNF) was used as a surface modifier for glassy carbon electrodes. The oxidation of ascorbic acid on a glassy carbon electrode modified with GC/CoPCNF as a working electrode was studied using cyclic voltammetry, rotating disk electrode (RDE) voltammetry and chronoamperometry in a 0.25 M KNO3 + 0.25 M phosphate buffer (pH 7) solution. The glassy carbon modified with CoPCNF showed good electrocatalytic activity toward ascorbic acid oxidation. The kinetics of the catalytic reaction was investigated, and the average value of the rate constant (k) for the catalytic reaction and the diffusion coefficient (D) were evaluated by different approaches for ascorbic acid, and were found to be 3.3 +/- 0.3 x 10(2) M(-1) s(-1) and 3.2 +/- 0.3 x 10(-6) cm2 s(-1), respectively.     

One-step electrochemical synthesis of Pt–CeO2 composite thin films on a glassy carbon electrode

A Pt–CeO₂ composite thin film was prepared on a glassy carbon electrode by one-step electrochemical deposition technique. The film was constructed of Pt particles well dispersed and embedded in a porous CeO₂ substrate. The prepared Pt–CeO₂/GC electrode showed a better catalytic performance toward methanol electrooxidation compared with the bulk Pt electrode.     

Electrocatalytic reduction of dioxygen on a glassy carbon electrode modified with adsorbed cobaloxime complex.

The preparation and electrochemical properties of a glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with cobaloxime complex were investigated. The complex of the type [CoIII(DO)(DOH)pn)Cl2] where (DO)(DOH)pn = N2,N2'-propanediylbis-2,3-butanedione-2-imine-3-oxime) was adsorbed irreversibly and strongly on the surface of preanodized glassy carbon electrode. Electrochemical behavior and stability of modified GC electrode were investigated by cyclic voltammetry. The electrocatalytic reduction of dioxygen has been studied using this modified glassy carbon electrode by cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and rotating disk electrode voltammetry as diagnostic techniques. The modified electrode showed excellent eletrocatalytic ability for the reduction of dioxygen to hydrogen peroxide in acetate buffer (pH 4.0) with overpotential 1.0 V lower than the plain glassy carbon electrode. The formal potential for this modified electrode is not shifted to more negative potentials by repeated reduction-oxidation cycles in oxygen-saturated supporting electrolyte solution. The apparent electron transfer rate constant (kS), the transfer coefficent (alpha) and the catalytic rate constant of O2 reduction at a GC modified electrode were determined by cyclic voltammetry and rotating disk electrode voltammetry and were found to be around 2.6 s(-1), 0.33 and 2.25 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1). Based on the results, a catalytic mechanism is proposed and discussed.     

A Novel Enzymatic Glucose Biosensor and Nonenzymatic Hydrogen Peroxide Sensor Based on (3‐Aminopropyl) Triethoxysilane Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide

In the present study, a novel enzymatic glucose biosensor using glucose oxidase (GOx) immobilized into (3‐aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) functionalized reduced graphene oxide (rGO‐APTES) and hydrogen peroxide sensor based on rGO‐APTES modified glassy carbon (GC) electrode were fabricated. Nafion (Nf) was used as a protective membrane. For the characterization of the composites, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X‐ray powder diffractometer (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used. The electrochemical properties of the modified electrodes were investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and amperometry. The resulting Nf/rGO‐APTES/GOx/GC and Nf/rGO‐APTES/GC composites showed good electrocatalytical activity toward glucose and H₂O₂, respectively. The Nf/rGO‐APTES/GC electrode exhibited a linear range of H₂O₂ concentration from 0.05 to 15.25 mM with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.017 mM and sensitivity of 124.87 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻². The Nf/rGO‐APTES/GOx/GC electrode showed a linear range of glucose from 0.02 to 4.340 mM with a LOD of 9 μM and sensitivity of 75.26 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻². Also, the sensor and biosensor had notable selectivity, repeatability, reproducibility, and storage stability.     

TiO2-WO3负载硅钨酸盐聚苯胺膜电极的电化学行为及电催化性能研究

用循环伏安法制备了金属氧化物(TiO2-WO3)负载硅钨酸盐聚苯胺膜修饰玻碳电极(PAn/SiW12/TiO2-WO3/GC),优化了聚合条件,并对该化学修饰电极的电化学行为,包括溶液pH值的影响和电极的稳定性等进行了研究。研究结果表明,此修饰电极聚合物膜不但保持了该杂多酸的电化学活性和电催化性能,又具有良好的稳定性。在0.5 mol/LH2SO4溶液中,该膜电极中的SiW12的第2个还原峰对BrO3-有很好电催化活性,催化过程符合EC平行催化机理。     

Electrocatalytic reduction of NAD+ at glassy carbon electrode modified with single-walled carbon nanotubes and Ru(III) complexes

A simple procedure was developed to prepare a glassy carbon electrode modified with carbon nanotubes and Ruthenium (III) complexes. First, 25 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide–carbon nanotubes solutions (0.4 mg/ml) was cast on the surface of the glassy carbon electrode and dried in air to form a carbon nanotube film at the electrode surface. Then, the glassy carbon/carbon nanotube-modified electrode was immersed into a Ruthenium (III) complex solution (direct deposition) for a short period of time (10–20 s for multiwalled carbon nanotubes and 20–40 s for single-walled carbon nanotubes). The cyclic voltammograms of the modified electrode in aqueous solution shows a pair of well-defined, stable, and nearly reversible redox couple, Ru(III)/Ru(II), with surface-confined characteristics. The attractive mechanical and electrical characteristics of carbon nanostructures and unique properties and reactivity of Ru complexes are combined. The transfer coefficient (α), heterogeneous electron transfer rate constants (k _s), and surface concentrations (Γ) for the glassy carbon/single-walled carbon nanotubes/Ru(III) complex-, glassy carbon/multiwalled carbon nanotubes/Ru(III) complex-, and glassy carbon/Ru(III) complex-modified electrodes were calculated using the cyclic voltammetry technique. The modified electrodes showed excellent catalytic activity, fast response time, and high sensitivity toward the reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide in phosphate buffer solutions at a pH range of 4–8. The catalytic cathodic current depends on the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide concentration. In the presence of alcohol dehydrogenase, the modified electrode exhibited a response to addition of acetaldehyde. Therefore, the main product of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide electroreduction at the Ru(III) complex/carbon nanotube-modified electrode was the enzymatically active NADH. The purposed sensor can be used for acetaldehyde determination.     

Electrochemical study and flow-injection amperometric detection of trace NO(2)(-) at CuPtCl(6) chemically modified electrode

A thin film of mixed-valent CuPtCl₆ is deposited on a glassy carbon electrode by continuous cyclic scanning in a solution containing 3×10⁻³ M CuCl₂+3×10⁻³ M K₂PtCl₆+1 M KCl in the potential range from 700 to −800 mV. The cyclic voltammetry is used to study the electrochemical behaviors of nitrite on CuPtCl₆/GC modified electrode and the electrode displays a good catalytic activity toward the oxidation of nitrite. The effects of the film thickness, pH, the electrode stability and precision have been evaluated. Experiments in flow-injection analysis are performed to characterize the electrode as an amperometric sensor for the detection of nitrite. The modified electrode shows a wide dynamic range, quite a low detection limit and short response time. The linear relationship between the flow-injection peak currents and the concentrations of nitrite is at a range of 1×10⁻⁷–2×10⁻³ M with a detection limit of 5×10⁻⁸ M.     

Amperometric Biosensors for Glucose Based on Layer‐by‐Layer Assembled Functionalized Carbon Nanotube and Poly (Neutral Red) Multilayer Film

Abstract

Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) were treated with a mixture of concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid to introduce carboxylic acid groups to the nanotubes. Conducting polymer film was prepared by electrochemical polymerization of neutral red (NR). By using a layer‐by‐layer method, homogeneous and stable MWNTs and poly (neutral red) (PNR) multilayer films were alternately assembled on glassy carbon (GC) electrodes. With the introduction of PNR, the MWNTs/PNR multilayer film system showed synergy between the MWNTs and PNR, with a significant improvement of redox activity due to the excellent electron‐transfer ability of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and PNR. The electropolymerization is advantageous, providing both prolonged long‐term stability and improved catalytic activity of the resulting modified electrodes. The MWNTs/PNR multilayer film modified glassy carbon electrode allows low potential detection of hydrogen peroxide with high sensitivity and fast response time. As compared to MWNTs and PNR‐modified GC electrodes, the magnitude of the amperometric response of the MWNTs/PNR composite‐modified GC electrode is more than three‐fold greater than that of the MWNTs modified GC electrode, and nine‐fold greater than that of the PNR‐modified GC electrode. With the immobilization of glucose oxidase onto the electrode surface using glutaric dialdehyde, a biosensor that responds sensitively to glucose has been constructed. In pH 6.98 phosphate buffer, nearly interference‐free determination of glucose has been realized at ?0.2 V vs. SCE with a linear range from 50 µM to 10 mM and response time <10s. The detection limit was 10 µM glucose (S/N=3).