激光立体成形中熔池凝固微观组织的元胞自动机模拟

本文通过采用自适应网格技术, 将激光立体成形的宏观温度场模型和凝固微观组织的低网格各向异性元胞自动机模型(cellular automaton, CA)结合, 建立了适用于激光立体成形的集成数值模型. 模型包括基材的温度场分布, 熔池形貌和熔凝过程的凝固微观组织. 模拟了激光扫描速度为15 mm/s时, 激光作用在Fe-C单晶基材上形成熔池的形状以及熔池内凝固微观组织. 计算结果揭示了熔池内固液界面从平界面失稳到胞\枝晶的非稳态凝固过程, 并得到了平界面组织形成的白亮带. 白亮带上方形成了外延生长的枝晶列.     

液氮冷却条件下激光快速熔凝Ni-28 wt%Sn合金组织演变

研究了在液氮冷却条件下激光快速熔凝Ni-28 wt%Sn亚共晶合金的组织演化过程. 结果显示, 熔池从上至下可以分为三个区域: 表层为平行激光扫描方向的α-Ni转向枝晶区; 中部为近乎垂直于熔池底部外延生长的α-Ni柱状晶区; 底部为少量的残留α-Ni初生相和大量的枝晶间(α-Ni+Ni₃Sn) 共晶组织. 激光熔凝区组织受原始基材组织的影响很大, 熔池中的α-Ni枝晶生长方向受到了热流方向和枝晶择优取向的双重影响. 与基材中存在的层片状、棒状和少量离异(α-Ni+Ni₃Sn)共晶的混合组织相比, 熔池内的共晶组织皆为细小的规则(α-Ni+Ni₃Sn)层片状共晶, 皆垂直于熔池底部外延生长, 并且从熔池顶部至底部, 共晶层片间距逐渐增大. 分别应用描述快速枝晶生长的Kurz-Giovanola-Trivedi 模型和描述快速共晶生长的Trivedi-Magnin-Kurz模型对熔池表层凝固界面前沿的过冷度进行估算, 发现熔池表层α-Ni 枝晶和(α-Ni+Ni₃Sn)层片共晶的生长过冷度在50.4-112.5 K 之间, 远大于相应深过冷凝固(α-Ni+Ni₃Sn) 反常共晶生长的临界过冷度20 K, 这说明文献报道的临界过冷度并不是反常共晶出现的充分条件.     

温度梯度区域熔化作用下熔池迁移的元胞自动机模拟

本文采用耦合凝固和熔化效应的二维元胞自动机(cellular automaton, CA)模型,对温度梯度区域熔化(temperature gradient zone melting, TGZM)效应引起的熔池在固液两相区中的迁移现象进行模拟研究.模拟分析了抽拉速度、熔池初始位置、温度梯度和合金成分等因素对TGZM动力学的影响,并将模拟结果与解析模型的预测结果进行比较验证.通过模拟发现,在温度梯度作用下,熔池总是向着高温方向迁移;当抽拉速度低于或高于临界抽拉速度时,熔池朝向移动的液相线或固相线迁移;对于给定的抽拉速度,位于糊状区内临界位置以上的熔池会迁移进入液相,而位于临界位置以下的熔池会逐步靠近固相线.此外,温度梯度越高,合金成分越低,熔池的迁移速度越快.     

Influence of isothermal approximation on the phase-field simulation of directional growth in undercooled melt

By using the phase-field approach,we have simulated the directional growth of alloys in undercooled moten states under the isothermal and nonisothermal conditions.The influences of the isothermal approximation on simulation results are discussed.We found that for undercooling greater than 25K,the isothermal approximation overestimates the interface growth velocity and reduces a critical velocity for an absolute stable planar interface,thus in this simulation,the uinterface morphology shows the plane-cell-plane transition with increasing initial undercooling of the mele,and the planar interface obtained under a large undercooling is absolutely stable.Whereas in the nonisothermal simulation,only plane-cell transition occures in the same range of the initial undercoolings of the melt,and the planar interface tends to be destabilized and evolve into cells.     

二元合金高速定向凝固过程的相场法数值模拟

利用相场法对二元合金高速定向凝固过程进行了模拟，为简化计算，采用了温度冻结近似.模拟了定向凝固时平界面失稳、界面形态演化、溶质浓度分布以及高速绝对稳定性条件下胞晶向平面晶的转变等，得到了不同抽拉速度下胞晶间距、胞晶尖端温度以及有效溶质分配系数等参数，显示了高速生长条件下的溶质截留效应. 关键词： 定向凝固 相场法 高速绝对稳定性 溶质截留     

Heat transfer modelling and stability analysis of selective laser melting

The process of direct manufacturing by selective laser melting basically consists of laser beam scanning over a thin powder layer deposited on a dense substrate. Complete remelting of the powder in the scanned zone and its good adhesion to the substrate ensure obtaining functional parts with improved mechanical properties. Experiments with single-line scanning indicate, that an interval of scanning velocities exists where the remelted tracks are uniform. The tracks become broken if the scanning velocity is outside this interval. This is extremely undesirable and referred to as the “balling” effect. A numerical model of coupled radiation and heat transfer is proposed to analyse the observed instability. The “balling” effect at high scanning velocities (above ∼20 cm/s for the present conditions) can be explained by the Plateau-Rayleigh capillary instability of the melt pool. Two factors stabilize the process with decreasing the scanning velocity: reducing the length-to-width ratio of the melt pool and increasing the width of its contact with the substrate.     

The effect of interfacial energy anisotropy on planar interface instability in a succinonitrile alloy under a small temperature gradient

The morphological stability of a planar interface with different crystallographic orientations is studied under a small positive temperature gradient using a transparent model alloy of succinonitrile.Novel experimental apparatus is constructed to provide a temperature gradient of about 0.37 K/mm.Under this small temperature gradient,the planar interface instability depends largely on the crystallographic orientation.It is shown experimentally that the effect of interfacial energy anisotropy on planar interface stability cannot be neglected even in a small temperature gradient system.Higher interfacial energy anisotropy leads the planar interface to become more unstable,which is different from the stabilizing effect of the interfacial energy on the planar interface.The experimental results are in agreement with previous theoretical calculations and phase field simulations.     

Investigation on cracking behavior of Ni-based coating by laser-induction hybrid cladding

Based on the experiments of laser-induction hybrid cladding by powder feeding, the cracking behavior of Ni-based coating and solidification characteristic in molten pool were investigated. The results indicate that the hybrid cladding is effective to prevent from cracking in Ni-based coating. With the increase of induction energy density, the tensile stress and crack rate decrease obviously. When the induction energy density arrives at 36 J/mm², the free-cracks coating can be achieved. In laser-induction hybrid cladding, the martensite can be eliminated in the heat affected zone and the phase transformation stress is little. Moreover, the molten pool is solidified through two directions such as the coating surface and coating/substrate interface, i.e., firstly the top and bottom in molten pool are solidified, and then the middle in molten pool is solidified. Therefore, in hybrid cladding, the peak value of tensile stress is located in the middle of coating, which is different from that in laser cladding. This distribution status of residual stress is greatly helpful to restrict the cracks of Ni-based coating in laser-induction hybrid cladding.     

六面顶压机高温高压弹性波速测量装置样品室温度梯度的校正

 大腔体六面顶压机波速测量装置的样品室内存在着较大的温度梯度。根据实验观测的样品室内的温度分布数据和在一定温度条件下波速随温度升高呈线性变化的特征，运用理论分析和计算相结合的方法对样品的弹性波速进行了校正。以斜长角闪岩为例，对其实验测量的纵波速度（v_P）进行了校正，并与原来的数据作了对比：波速校正量绝对值随着温度的升高逐渐增大；在2.0 GPa、530 ℃时，样品X和样品Y校正后的v_P比未校正的v_P分别减小了0.270 km/s（3.3%）和0.118 km/s（1.5%）。这种方法明显地提高了波速测量结果的精度，有助于更准确地进行地球物理资料的解释。     

Numerical simulation of temperature distribution and TiC growth kinetics for high power laser clad TiC/NiCrBSiC composite coatings

A three dimensional model was proposed to simulate high power laser clad TiC/NiCrBSiC composite coatings on Ti6Al4V alloys. The temperature distribution, temperature curves on different nodes, three dimensional shape and size of TiC melting region, molten pool and heat affected zone (HAZ) of the substrate were obtained. To have a clear physical insight into the phase transformation and microstructure evolution in the coatings during laser cladding process, a theoretical kinetic analysis was performed to elucidate the nucleation, growth velocity, and size of TiC particles on the basis of simulated temperature curves of the molten pool. A good quality TiC/NiCrBSiC composite coating with low dilution rate and excellent metallurgical bond was fabricated under optimal processing parameters using powder mixture of TiC and NiCrBSiC as clad material and cuboid of Ti6Al4V alloys as substrate. To validate the reliability of the proposed model, the theoretical results were compared with the microstructure of the coatings. It shows that these theoretical results are in excellent agreement with the experiment cases.     

The effect of anisotropic surface tension on the morphological stability of planar interface during directional solidification

This paper considers the effect of the anisotropic surface tension on the morphological stability of the planar interface during directional solidification. When the expression exhibiting the four-fold symmetry is included, the modified absolute stability criterion is obtained by employing the multi-variable expansion method. The linear stability analysis reveals that for the given temperature gradient, as the anisotropic surface tension parameter increases, the stability zone tends to decrease.     

Micromachining of microchannel on the polycarbonate substrate with CO2 laser direct-writing ablation

Low-power CO₂ laser direct-writing ablation was used to micromachine a microchannel on the polycarbonate substrate in this work. The influence of the process parameters (the laser power, the moving velocity of the laser beam and the scanning times) on the micromachining quality (the depth, the width and their aspect ratio) of the microchannel was experimentally studied. The depth and width of microchannel both increase with the increase of the laser power and the decrease of the moving velocity of the laser beam. When higher laser power and slower moving velocity were used, the polycarbonate surface bore more heat irradiated from the CO₂ laser for longer time which results in the formation of deeper and wider molten pool, hence the ability to fabricate bigger microchannel. Because of the effect of the laser power on the depth and width of microchannels, higher aspect (depth/width) ratio could be achieved using slower moving velocity and higher laser power, and it would reach a steady state when the laser power increases to 9.0 W possibly caused by the effect of laser power on the different directions of microchannel. The polycarbonate–polycarbonate chip was bonded with hot-press bonding technique.     

Numerical and experimental studies of molten pool formation during an interaction of a pulse laser (Nd:YAG) with a magnesium alloy

A pulse laser (Nd:YAG) interaction with an AZ91 magnesium alloy has been experimentally and numerically studied. A two-dimensional (2D) axisymmetric model of a molten pool created by a laser heat source has been developed. The elaborated model solves the coupled equations of a laminar fluid flow and heat transfer to demonstrate the flow behavior in the pool. This model takes into account the coupled effects of buoyancy and Marangoni forces, the thermophysic variation properties with temperature, and the radiation and convection heat losses. Concerning numerical results, the molten temperature distribution, velocity field and molten shape were discussed. It was noted that the Marangoni flow significantly alters the characteristics of the thawing and solidifying processes, and makes the molten pool wider and shallower. On the other hand, the experimental results showed that the material thermal properties have significant effects on the transport phenomena which takes place in the molten pool, and consequently on the formation as well as the shape of the pool. Finally, a comparison between the numerical and experimental results exhibited a good agreement.     

磁驱动准等熵加载下Z切石英晶体的折射率

基于CQ4脉冲功率实验装置开展了Z-切石英晶体在磁驱动准等熵加载下的窗口折射率修正关系研究. 实验中采用激光波长1550 nm的双源光外差测速仪测量获得了LiF窗口和Z-切石英晶体窗口与不同厚度极板界面的粒子速度. 利用反积分方法由实验测得的LiF窗口与极板界面粒子速度计算得到了极板的加载磁压力历史; 以获得的磁压力为输入条件, 采用LS-DYNA计算软件正向计算得到石英晶体窗口与极板界面的真实粒子速度历史. 由实验获得的Z-切石英晶体窗口/极板界面表观粒子速度和计算得到的真实粒子速度, 获得了Z-切石英晶体弹性极限内的连续的折射率修正关系, 将其折射率修正关系的适用压力范围拓宽至14.55 GPa. 表观粒子速度与真实粒子速度关系采用线性拟合时, 折射率修正关系为n=1.087 (± 0.008)+0.4408ρ/ρ₀, 与冲击数据拟合的结果一致. 由折射率实验数据对Z-切石英晶体的极化率分析认为, 在其弹性极限压力范围内加载路径和温度对折射率的影响可以忽略.     

Numerical simulation of the transient multiphase field during plasma deposition manufacturing composite materials

A solid/liquid/gas unified model has been developed to investigate the gradient composition formation during the plasma deposition manufacturing (PDM) composite materials process. In this model, an enthalpy porosity model was applied to deal with the melting and solidification of the deposited layer, and a level-set approach was introduced to track the evolution of the free surface of the molten pool and the deposited layer. Moreover, complicated physical phenomena occurring at the liquid/gas interface, including forced convection heat loss, heat emission and plasma heat source, have been incorporated into the governing equations by source terms. In this study, the numerical experiment of nickel base alloy powder deposited on the medium steel substrate by PDM technique was implemented based on the staggered grid and SIMPLEC algorithm. Concentration gradient distribution of the solute material at the composite material interface, fluid flow and temperature distribution in the molten pool and the deposited layer have been investigated in detail. Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 50474053) and the High Technology Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2007AA04Z142)     

Effect of gas temperature on critical velocity and deposition characteristics in kinetic spraying

This study evaluated the effects of particle temperature and substrate material on critical velocity and deposition efficiency in kinetic spraying. A wide range of process gas pressures and temperatures was used in this experiment to vary both particle velocity and temperature. A bronze (Cu-Sn alloy) feedstock was deposited onto aluminum, mild steel and bronze substrates. The experimental results showed that the critical velocity was strongly dependent on the combinations of particle/substrate and particle temperature. The decreasing critical velocity could be obtained at the same particle velocity, due to an increasing particle temperature. In our experiments, the critical velocity decreased by 50 m/s when the process gas temperature increased by 100 °C. When process conditions are optimized to have good bond strength and deposition efficiency, two critical velocities must be considered; one is that of the particle deposition onto the substrate (Vcr1) and the other is that of particle-particle bonding (Vcr2).     

镍基合金激光熔覆数值模拟及凝固参数预测

本文采用有限体积法对激光熔覆过程的温度场分布和熔体流动进行了数值模拟.基于CALPHAD相图法计算了基体和粉末的热物理性质,采用三维热源精确预测了凝固过程和温度分布,研究了Marangoni对流对熔池尺寸的影响.在熔池凝固过程中模拟所得出的温度梯度和凝固速度,预测了熔覆层凝固组织的演变趋势,相应的显微组织与实验结果吻合...     

Finite element analysis of laser irradiated metal heating and melting processes

Laser technology has shown fast growth due to its demands in material processing and manufacturing. Laser material processing includes various applications like cutting, welding, drilling, cladding and surface treatment. In laser surface treatment, the material properties at the surface are altered through surface alloying and transformation hardening. In this study, an enthalpy-based computational model is developed for analyzing laser heating and melting of metals. The solution to the problem is obtained by using a finite element method and validated by comparing the results with that given by an analytical solution to a limiting case problem. A solution algorithm and a computational code are developed to estimate the temperature distribution, solid-liquid interface location and shape and size of the molten pool. The computational model is validated by comparing results with a limiting case analytical model. The study is conducted to analyze the heating rate, the heat affected zone, and the shape and size of the molten pool using a Gaussian laser beam.     

Flow-induced oscillations of a cantilevered pipe conveying fluid with base excitation

It is known that a plain cantilevered pipe conveying fluid loses its stability by a Hopf bifurcation, leading to either planar or non-planar flutter for flow velocities beyond the critical flow velocity for Hopf bifurcation. If an external mass is attached to the end of the pipe (an end-mass), the resulting dynamics become much richer, showing 2D and 3D quasiperiodic and chaotic oscillations at high flow velocities. In this paper, a cantilevered pipe, with and without an end-mass, subjected to a small-amplitude periodic base excitation is considered. A set of three-dimensional nonlinear equations is used to analyze the pipe?s response at various flow velocities and with different amplitudes and frequencies of base excitation. The nonlinear equations are discretized using the Galerkin technique and the resulting set of equations is solved using Houbolt?s finite difference method. It is shown that for a plain pipe (with no end-mass), non-planar post-instability oscillations can be reduced to planar periodic oscillations for a range of base excitation frequencies and amplitudes. For a pipe with an end-mass, similarly to a plain pipe, three-dimensional period oscillations can be reduced to planar ones. At flow velocities beyond the critical flow velocity for torus instability, the three-dimensional quasiperiodic oscillations can be reduced to two-dimensional quasiperiodic or periodic oscillations, depending on the frequency of base excitation. In all these cases, a low-amplitude base excitation results in reducing the three-dimensional oscillations of the pipe to purely two-dimensional oscillations, over a range of excitation frequencies. These numerical results are in agreement with the previous experimental work.     

Estimation of laser solid forming process based on temperature measurement

By using a moving disc heat source model, an analytical model was developed to describe laser solid forming (LSF) process with the feedback of the surface temperature of the molten pool, which can be used to estimate the geometric characterizations (width and height) of the clad layer rapidly. An on-line temperature measurement system was established and some single-pass cladding experiments were conducted while the molten pool temperature was monitored. It was found that the estimated geometric characterizations agreed well with the experimental results. In addition, the power consumed by conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation and absorption during LSF were also estimated by the model. It was shown that the majority of the total absorbed power was conducted to the substrate. The effective model can not only be used to optimize the processing parameters but also potentially applied to the real-time feedback control.